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http://www.arcliive.org/details/christianartinplOOkretiala 


CHRISTIAN  ART 


IN  THE  PLACE  AND  IN  THE  FORM 


OF 


LUTHERAN  WORSHIP. 


By 
Paul  E.  Kretzmann,  Ph.  D.,  B.  D. 


ST.  LOUIS,  MO. 

CONCORDIA  PUBLISHING  HOUSE. 

1921. 


I 


PREFACE. 

The  double  volume  which  is  herewith  offered  to  the  Lutheran 
liturgiologists  and  liturgists  of  America  makes  no  claim  of  being 
an  exhaustive  presentation.  It  is  merely,  as  the  subtitle  states, 
a  hand-book  for  the  student,  for  the  busy  pastor,  and  for  all  those 
interested  in  Christian  art  from  the  Lutheran  standpoint  and  in 
tlie  liturgical  heritage  of  the  Reformation.  The  references  and 
foot-notes,  however,  may  prove  of  value  to  such  as  wish  to  make 
a  more  detailed  study  of  any  section. 

The  author  wishes  to.  make  grateful  acknowledgment  for 
suggestions  and  help  received  in  preparing  this  study  to  Professor 
L.  Fuerbringer,  of  St.  Louis,  Mo.,  to  Dr.  J.  F.  Ohl,  of  Philadel- 
phia, Penn.,  to  Dr.  E,  F.  Krauss,  of  Maywood,  111.,  to  Dr.  C.  Abbet- 
meyer,  of  St,  Paul,  Minn.,  and  to  such  others  as  have  given  en- 
couragement and  advice  in  any  form. 

The  Autuor. 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS. 


BOOK  I. 

A   HANDBOOK   OF  CHURCH   ARCHITECTURE   AND 

ECCLESIASTICAL  ART. 

Part  I. 

History  of  Church  Architecture  and  Ecclesiastical  Art. 

Chapter  1.    The  Tabernacle  and  the  Three  Temples  of  the  Jews. 

Interest  attaching  to  the  discussion.     The   tabernacle.     Its   ap- 
pointments.    First  temple.     Second  temple.     Third  temple. 

Chapter  2.    The  Places  of  Worship  in  the  Early  Christian  Church. 
In  apostolic  times.    The  ante-Nicean  period.    Catacombs.    Devel- 
opment of  basilica.    Basilica. 

CJiapter  3.    The  Byzantine  Style. 

Central  type.   Ilag'ia  Sofia.    St.  Mark's.  .Byzantine  style  in  Russia. 

Chapter  4.    The  Romanesque  Style. 

Name  and  divisions  of  style.     General  description.     Examples. 

Cnapter  5.    The  Gothic  Style. 

General  description.    i:*lan  and  development.     Periods  of  Gothic: 
in  France,  England,  Italy,  Spain,  Germany. 

Chapter  6.     The  Influence   of  the   Renaissance   and   the   Neo-Classic 
Movement. 
General     description     and     development.      Periods.      St.    Peter's. 
St.  Paul's.     France  and  Russia.     Neo-classic  in  the  strict  sense. 

Chapter  7.    Church  Building  in  America. 

First  church  buildings.    Colonial  style.    California  mission.    Clas- 
sic revival.    Present  condition. 

Chapter  8.    History  of  Ecclesiastical  Art. 
Sculpture.    Painting.     Mosaics. 

Chapter  9.    The  Minor  Arts. 

Art  windows.    Altar.    Rood-screen.    Lecterns  and  pulpits.    Fonts. 
Bells.    Organ.    Clerical  vestments.    Paraiiieuts.    Eucharistic  ves-- 
sels.    Cross  and  candelabra. 

Part  II. 

The   Practical    Execution   of  a    Lutheran   Church    Building   and    its 

Appointments. 

Chapter  1.     Preliminary  Considerations  and  the  Choice  of  Style   of 
Architecture. 
Principles.      Historical    considerations.      Orientation.      Liturgical 
requirements.     Questions  of  style. 

Chapter  2.     The  Architecture  of  the  Various  Parts  of  the  Lutheran 
Church  Building. 
Special  needs  of  Lutheran  church.    Chancel.    Baptistery.   Balcony. 
Vestibule.    Tower.    Vestry.    Retiring-room.    Exterior.    Basement. 

Chapter  3.    The  Furniture  of  the  Chancel  and  of  the  Auditorium. 
Altar.    Pulpit.    Font.   Lectern.    Cross  and  candelabra.    Eucharistic 
vessels.    Pews.    Organ.    Hymnboards. 

Chapter  4.     vVindows,  Mosaics,  Sculpture,  Painting,  Decorating. 

Chapter  5.     Lighting,  Heating,  Ventilating,  Bells,  Hardware. 


'^^  TABLE  OF  CONTENTS. 

Chapter  6.    Paranients  and  Clerical  Vestments. 

Altar  linen.    Colored  vestments.    Carpets.    Cleriodl  vestments. 

Chapter  7.    The  Symbolism  of  the  Lutheran  Church  Building  and  its 
Appointments. 
Church  building  in  general.     Monograms  of  Christ.     Symbolism 
of  animals;   of  flowers  and  plants.    Evangelists.    Parables.    Other 
symbols. 

Cnapter  8.    The  Parish  House. 
Style.     Disposition  of  parts. 

BOOK  II. 

A  HANDBOOK  OF  LITURGICS,  HYMNOLOGY,  AND   HEORTOLOGY. 

Part  I. 

History  of  the  Liturgy. 

Chapter  1.    The  Old  Testament  Cultus. 

Temple  services.     The  offerings.     Synggog  services. 

Chapter  2.     The  Liturgy  of  the  Early  Christian  Church. 
Of  the  apostles.     End  of  the  first  century. 

Chapter  3.    The  Divergent  Orders  from  the  Beginning  of  the  Fourth 
Century. 
Clementine    Litiirgj'.      Of    St.    James.      Nestorian.      Cappadocian. 
Armenian.     Of  Chrysostom.     Ephesine-Gallican.    Mozarabic.    Afri- 
can.   Milan.    Alexandrian.    Coptic.    Table  of  liturgies. 

Chapter  4.     The  Development  oi:  the  Roman  Liturgy  to  the  Present 
Form. 
In  the   5th   century.     Gregory.     Introduction  into   England    and 
Ireland;    into  Gaul;    into   Spain.    Service  books.    Rite  during  the 
Middle  Ages.     Canon  Missae. 

Cnapter  5.     Ancient  Liturgies  of  Various  Branches  of  the  Church  in 
Use  at  the  Present  Time. 
Greek    or    Russian.      Armenian.      Nestorian.      Syrian    Jacobites. 
Maronites.    P^gyptian.     Abyssinian.    Malabar.     Ambrosian.    Moza- 
rabic, 

Chapter  6.    The  Effect  of  the  Reformation  on  the  Ijiturgy. 

The  word  "Mass.'  Luther's  efforts  at  reform.  Carlstadt's  storm- 
ing.    Luther's   liturgical   classics.      Other   liturgiologists. 

Chapter  7.     The  Liturgfical  Deterioration  of  the  Latter  17th  and  the 
18th  Century. 
Conditions  at  end   of  Thirty  Years'   War.      Character   of   revised 
orders.     Pietism.     Rationalism.     Beginning  of  19th  century. 

Chapter  8.     The  Book  of  Common  Prayer. 

Anglo-Saxon  invasion.  Aiigustine.  Use  of  Saruni.  Book  of  1549. 
Book  of  1552.  Book  of  1559.  In  Scotland.  Order  of  chief  service. 
Minor  services. 

Chapter  9.     Revival  of  Liturgical  Interest. 

Prussian  Agenda  of  1822.     Kliefoth.     Loehe. 

Chapter  10.     The  Liturgy  in  the  Lutheran  Church  of  America. 

Norwegian.  Danish.  Swedish.  German.  Early  history  in  the 
East.    Common  Service. 

Chapter  11.    The  Liturgy'  in  the  Reformed  Churches  of  America. 

Zwingli.  Calvin.  Knox.  Baptist.  Presbyterian.  Congregational. 
Methodist. 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS.  VII 

Part  II. 
Hymnology. 

(Thapter  1.     Tin-  Old  Testament  I'salnis. 

In  temple  serviee.     Psalms.     Melodies.     Instruments. 

Chapter  2.     Hymns  in   the  Apostolie  and   Ante-Nicean   Periods. 

Hymns  and  spiritual  songs.     Second  century.     Syria.    Antiphonal 
singing. 

Chapter  3.     The  Canono-Catholic  and  Roman  Catholic  Periods. 

In  the  East.     Hymns  of  the  canonical   hours.     Ambrose.     Leo. 
(jlregory.    Prndentius  to  Xavier. 

Chapter  4.    The  Period  of  the  Reformation. 

Popular  vernacular  church  song.    Luther's  hymns.    Other  Luthe- 
ran hymn-writers.    Melodies. 

Chapter  5.    Hj-mns  since  the  Reformation. 

From  Johann  Heermann  to  Spitta.     Melodies.     Religious  music. 
Hymns  of  England  and  America. 

Part  III. 
Heortology. 

Chapter  1.    The  Festivals  of  the  Old  Testament  Church. 

Passover.     Pentecost.     Tabernacles.     Day  of  Atonement.     Minor 
festivals. 

Chapter  2.    Festivals  of  the  Early  Church. 

Sunday.     Lent.     Ascension   and    Pentecost.     Christmas.     Increase 
in  number  of  festivals. 

Chapter  3.  The  Growth  of  the  Specific  Roman  Catholic  Church  Year. 
The  old  festivals.  Mary  festivals,  pints'  and  martyrs'  days. 
Liturgical  customs. 

Chapter  4.    The  Church  year  of  the  Orient. 

Greek  Orthodox.     Armenian.     Nestorian.     Egyptian. 

Chapter  5.     The  Reformed  Church  Year. 
Sunday.     Anglican.     Other  Reformed. 

Chapter  6.    The  Lutheran  Church  Year. 

Luther's  reform.     The  Lutheran  calendar.     In  America. 

Part  IV. 
The  Liturgical  Content  of  the  Lutheran  Services. 

Chapter  1.    The  Morning  Service  or  the  Communion. 
Division  of  service  and  discussion  of  parts. 

Chapter  2.    The  Minor  Services, 

Canonical  hours.     Matins.     Discussion  of  parts.     Vespers.     Con- 
fession. 

Chapter  3.     Liturgical  Forms  for  Occasional  Sacred  Acts. 

Baptism.    Confirmation.  Solemnization  of  Matrimony.  Ordination. 

Chapter  4.     Symbolism  of  the  Lutheran  Cultus. 

Communion  Service.     Baptism.     Marriage  ceremony. 

Chapter  5.    Liturgical  Decorum  of  the  Pastor. 

Dress  and  vestments.    Familiarity  with  liturgy.    Chancel  etc.  in 
order.     Personal  habits.    Reading  and  prayer. 

Chapter  6.    Organ  Music  in  Church  Services. 

Organist    a    liturgist.     Singing    of    hymns.     Liturgical    singing. 
Other  music. 


BOOK  I. 
A  HANDBOOK 

OFi 

CHURCH  ARCHITECTURE  AND 
ECCLESIASTICAL  ART 

ESPECIALLY  FROM  THE  STANDPOINT 

OF  THE 

AMERICAN  LUTHERAN  CHURCH. 


Kretzmann,  Christian  Art. 


INTRODUCTION. 


The  number  of  books,  tracts,  and  articles  that  have  appeared  in 
the  last  fifty  years,  and  notably  in  the  last  two  decades,  bn  some  phase 
of  the  subject  "Christian  Art,"  are  evidence  of  the  revival  of  a  healthy 
interest  in  the  proprieties  of  public  worship,  especially  so  far  as  the 
place  of  worship  and  its  appointments  are  concerned.  The  Anglican 
Church  has  been  especially  active  in  this  respect.  Many  a  vestry  has 
been  ransacked,  many  a  church  account  has  been  thumbed  over,  many 
a  faded  book  has  been  cleaned  of  the  dust  of  centuries,  in  order  that 
the  people  might  once  more  get  an  understanding  of  the  expression  of 
the  ritual  in  the  form  of  church  art. 

This  movement  has  not  been  confined  to  the  Anglican  Church  or 
to  the  Protestant  Episcopal  Church  of  our  country.  In  the  Reformed 
churches  of  various  types,  the  bareness  and  barrenness  of  former  times 
is,  in  many  cases,  being  agreeably  relieved  by  decorations  and  hang- 
ings which  show  the  increasing  interest  and  understanding  of  our 
times  for  a  proper  and  significant  ornamentation  of  the  house  of 
worship. 

The  fact  that  this  tendency  is  also  becoming  more  obvious  within 
the  Lutheran  Church  of  America  does  not  argue  that  innovations  are 
being  proposed  or  foisted  upon  a  suspicious  majority  by  a  few  well- 
meaning  but  formalistie  reformers  with  high-church  or  even  Romaniz- 
ing tendencies.  On  the  contrary,  the  Lutheran  Church  of'  Anierica, 
having  emerged  from  the  years  of  poverty  and  privations  which  very 
naturally  attended  its  establishment  in  a  new  country,  is  now  in  a 
position  to  gather  up  the  treasures  of  the  ages  and  to  display  them  in 
such  a  way  as  to  confound  the  scoifer  and  to  convince  the  serious- 
minded.  For  the  Liitheran  Church  was  never  an  enemy  of  the  arts, 
neither  of  the  fine  nor  of  the  industrial  arts.  Luther,  with  fine  tact 
and  wise  discrimination,  insisted  upon  only  one  thing,  namely,  that 
every  suspicion  of  idolatry  in  the  houses  of  worship  be  removed  and 
that  the  preaching  of  the  Gospel  be  made  paramount.  To  these  prin- 
ciples the  Lutheran  Church  assented. 0  So  far  as  our  day  and  age 
are  concerned,  the  qiiestion  of  art  for  churches  in  its  various  forma 
could  hardly  be  discussed  in  a  more  convincing  manner  than  in  the 


1)  Apologia  Confessionis,  Art.  XXIV,  De  Afissa.  41 — 50.     Mueller, 
258.  259. 


4  INTRODUCTION. 

words  of  the  well-known  liturgiologist,  Dr.  C.  Abbetmeyer:  "The 
Lutheran  Church,  in  the  matter  of  seasons,  decorations,  and  ritual, 
with  true  conservatism  and  in  the  exercise  of  Christian  liberty,  has 
avoided  the  idolatrous  and  heretical  mummeries  of  Rome  as  well  as 
the  extreme  and  unbecoming  bareness  of  many  Reformed  churches 
and,  in  order  to  bring  the  knowledge  of  God's  grace  to  men's  hearts, 
has  preserved  those  usages  of  the  past  relating  to  the  seasons  of  the 
church-year,  the  appointments  of  the  church-buildings  and  the  litur- 
gical church-service,  which,  being  'good'  and  serviceable,  suit  the  true 
Church  of  God  in  all  ages.  To  confess  its  faith  it  did  not  hesitate  to 
enlist  the  aid  of  pure  and  beautiful  art  forms,  not  only  in  the  har- 
monies of  poetrj'  and  music,  but  also  in  architecture,  sculpture,  paint- 
ing, bronze  work,  wood-carving,  and  embroidery,  so  long  as  these 
aided  its  purpose  of  instruction  and  edification.  In  this  it  followed 
the  lead  of  Luther,  who  said  with  reference  to  the  iconoclasts,  to 
counteract  whom  he  left  the  safe  precincts  of  the  Wartburg:  'I  do 
not  believe  that  art  is  to  be  overthrown  by  the  Gospel,  as  some  hjT)er- 
spiritual  pepple  maintain;  but  I  should  like  to  see  all  the  arts' placed 
in  the  service  of  Him  who  made  them."  2) 

It  is  of  architecture  that  we  shall  mainly  treat  in  these  pages, 
though  painting,  sculpture,  and  the  minor  arts  will  receive  the  con- 
sideration which  they  deserve  as  the  handmaidens  of  architecture. 
And  this  in  itself  is  a  subject  which  may  well  engage  the  interest  of 
all  that  love  the  beautiful.  For  all  art  is  creative  and  readaptative. 
It  is  intelligent  and  serves  a  purpose.  It  is  the  beautiful  expression 
of  intelligent  truth.  If  this  is  true  of  every  art,  how  much  more  ap- 
pealing must  it  be  in  the  case  of  architecture,  in  which  we  find  the 
principles  of  every  art:  theme,  paragraphs,  coherence,  completeness, 
plan,  and  unity,  expressed  in  a  most  convincing  and  edifying  manner. 
"When  a  building  entirely  fulfils  the  purpose  for  which  is  it  intended 
and  bears  the  impress  of  a  genuine  style,  it  takes  rank  as  a  work  of 
architecture."  3)  "We  may  define  architecture  as  the  art  which  seeks 
to  harmonize  in  a  building  the  requirements  of  utility  and  beauty  .  .  - 
Only  when  the  idea  of  beauty  is  added  to  that  of  use  does  a  structure 
take  its  place  among  works  of  architecture."  *)  In  a  similar  way, 
Smith,5)  Price,6)  and  others  have  defined  architecture.  A  building, 
then,  to  be  a  work  of  art,  to  rank  with  the  products  of  architecture, 
must  be  appropriate  to  its  use,  strongly  built,  and  pleasing  to 
look  upon. 


2)  Lutheran  Witness,  XXXVI  (1917),  No.  13. 

3)  Mrs.  A.  Bell,  Architecture,  v. 

4)  Hamlin,  A.  D,  F.,  History  of  Architecture,  xxiii. 

5)  Architecture,  Classic  and  Early  Christian,  i. 

6)  The  Practical  Book  of  Architecture,  20 — 24. 


IXTKODUCTIOX.  5 

But  there  is  another  factor  that  should  be  emphasized.  Mr.  R.  A. 
Cram,  in  his  recent  book  "Church  Building,"  says:  "Art  is  the 
measure  of  civilization.  If  we  have  not  an  art  that  is  distinctive,  the 
natural  expression  of  a  healthy  people,  then  we  protest  in  vain.  We 
do  not  possess  a  genuine,  vital  civilization.  For  art  is  a  result,  not  a 
product."  If  this  be  true  of  art  and  architecture  in  general,  it  will 
be  especially  true  of  Christian,  and  specifically  of  Lutheran  archi- 
tecture. The  charge  which  is  so  often  made  against  the  Lutherans  in 
America,  that  their  church  edifices  are  merely  utilitarian  and  that  in 
many  of  them  every  law  of  beauty  and  expression,  not  to  speak  of 
doctrinal  and  liturgical  significance,  is  violated,  is  one  which  is  often 
only  too  well  founded.  The  peculiar  utilitarian  ideas  which  appear 
in  the  church  buildings  of  some  of  the  ultra-modern  anti-Christian 
congregations  (Mormon,  Christian  Science,  Institutional,  and  others) 
and  characterize  the  church  bodies  to  whom  they  profess  allegiance, 
are  only  too  often  copied,  at  least  in  part,  by  the  members  of  a  well- 
meaning  Lutheran  building  committee  and  carried  out  by  an  avari- 
cious or,  at  least,  imintelligent  architect.  It  seems  that  in  a  good 
many  so-called  edifices  of  public  worship  the  kitchen,  the  pantry,  the 
dining-room,  and,  perhaj^s,  the  ball-room  are  of  more  importance  than 
the  church  auditorium  proper,  which  shoidd  receive  first  considera- 
tion. Such  buildings  are  travesties,  and  th^r  erection,  in  many  eases, 
is  little  short  of  sacrilege.  It  is  decidedly  not  without  reason  that  we 
find  a  writer  complaining:  "One  finds  in  so  many,  also  in  the  newer 
churches,  the  disgrace  that  they  often  are  more  like  a  warehouse,  a 
concert-hall,  or  a  barn  than  a  house  of  God.  Some  churches  have  no 
head,  others  are  all  vestibule.  In  a  few  the  tower  and  main  portal 
are  behind  the  altar,  at  the  head,  instead  of  at  the  feet.  .  .  In  short, 
many  churches  are  disjecta  memhra,  a  confused  mass  of  pieces  of  a 
dismembered  corpse,  but  no  well-ordered  organism  full  of  spirit,  rea- 
son, and  life."")  Of  such  a  building,  another  writer  says:  "The  de- 
signer seems  purposely  to  have  avoided  an  ecclesiastical  expression. 
and  to  have  inidertaken  to  typify,  in  brick  and  stone,  the  wild,  free 
theologj'  of  the  West.  He  has  so  far  succeeded  that  nobody  could 
possibly  take  the  results  of  his  labors  for  a  church  in  the  usual  accep- 
tation of  the  term,  but  this  negative  attainment  does  not  yet  consti- 
tute a  positive  architectural  success.  It  may  be  that  western  ideas  in 
theology'  are  thus  far  somewhat  too  sketchy  to  form  a  basis  for  the 
establishment  of  an  architectural  t.vpe,  since  mere  negation  is  insus- 
ceptible of  architectural  expression."  8) 

That  conditions  occasion  such  severe  censure,  also  in  Lutheran 


7)  Muehe,  Die  paMtorale  Wuerde  im  Kirchetiflieiiste.  8. 

8)  Schuyler.  Montgomery,  American  Architecture.  178.  179. 


(5  INTBODUCTION. 

circles,^)  is  a  sad  reflection  upon  the  state  of  enlightenment  in  our 
midst.  If  a  Church  which  has  always  encouraged  and  nurtured  all 
the  arts  becomes  guilty  of  such  flagrant  offenses,  it  shows  that  thera 
is  a  lack  of  understanding  as  to  the  patrimony  of  the  ages  and  the 
heritage  of  the  Reformation.  For  it  cannot  be  a  question  merely  of 
money  and  willingness.  Our  people,  for  the  most  part,  are  now  so 
situated  that  they  are  no  longer  obliged  to  be  hewers  of  wood  and 
drawers  of  water.    Moreover,  they  are  eager  to  learn  all  they  can  of 


EL    DEIR,    TEMPLE    AT    PETRA. 

the  glorious  riches  of  Christian  church  art  and  will  respond  nobly  to 
every  effort  made  in  their  behalf.  If  pastors,  deacons,  and  trustees, 
teachers  and  boards,  men's  clubs  and  ladies'  societies,  young  people's 
guilds  and  schools  take  up  the  questions  involved,  each  in  his  own 
sphere  and  in  relation  to  the  part  he  is  most  interested  in,  the  result 
ought  to  be  a  splendid  revival  of  interest  in  the  liturgical  and  artis- 
tic heritage  of  the  Reformation. 


9)  Lutheran  Witness,  XXXVI  (1017),  Xo.  15;  XXXIV  (1915),  No.  22. 
No.  25. 


INTRODUCTION.  T 

It  is  with  this  object  in  view  that  these  pages  are  written.  Not 
only  shall  the  historical  side  of  Christian  art  receive  its  proper  em- 
phasis, with  all  the  subsidiary  arts;  not  only  shall  the  liturgical  and 
doctrinal  significance  of  the  various  parts  in  their  relation  to  one 
anotlier  and  to  the  entire  church-building  be  shown ;  but  the  practical 
side  also  will  receive  due  attention. 

With  this  fact  in  mind,  we  shall  therefore  omit  all  discussion  of 
the  pre-Christian  era,  with  the  exception  of  the  Jewish  tabernacle  and 
temples.  The  grandeur  of  the  Egj'ptian  temples,  of  Thebes,  of  Kar- 
nak,  of  Edfu  and  Philae,  the  majesty  of  those  royal  tombs,  the  pyra- 
mids of  Ghizeh,  the  overwhelming  silence  of  the  Sphinx,  had  little  or 
no  influence  on  Christian  architecture.  The  Assyrian  palaces  of 
Babylon,  Khorsabad,  and  Persepolis  left  no  impress  on  the  art  after 
Christ.  The  impressive  beauty  of  the  Greek  temples  with  their  fluted 
colunms  in  the  three  orders  has  aroused  only  temporary  interest  in 
the  Neo-Classic  period.  The  Etruscan  and  Roman  addition  of  S(^m- 
berness  and  dignity  did  nothing  to  make  the  temples  more  attractive 
to  the  Christians,  associated,  as  these  edifices  were,  with  idolatrous 
practices.  Some  of  them  were,  indeed,  converted  into  Christian 
churches,  but  the  history  of  their  past  still  clings  to  them. 

It  is  similar  with  sculpture,  painting,  asd  the  minor  arts. 
Phidias,  Praxiteles,  and  Skopas,  Polygnotos,  Timanthes,  and  Ai>elles 
had  indeed  gone  before,  and  that  there  was  some  influence  of  the 
antique,  of  the  classic,  in  the  development  of  Christian  art  cannot  be 
questioned;  but  essentially  it  followed  its  own  ideas,  since  it  believed 
in  and  fostered  other  ideals.  Even  the  Renaissance,  in  spite  of  its 
giant  upheaval,  did  not  influence  church  art  in  quite  the  same  man- 
ner or  to  the  same  degree  as  it  revolutionized  secular  art. 

Our  purpose  will  be.  simply  to  follow  the  history  of  Christian 
architecture  and  art  from  the  beginning,  and  to  make  the  application 
of  the  historical,  liturgical,  doctrinal,  and  practical  considerations  to 
our  own  day  and  age.  And  since  sculpture  and  painting,  for  the  pur- 
pose of  this  book,  are  on  a  level  with  the  minor  arts,  as  being  ancil- 
lary for. the  adornment  of  the  places  of  worship,  they  will  be  con- 
sidered in  this  respect  only,  in  order  that  the  exposition  may  stay  well 
within  the  compass  of  a  handbook. 


PART  I. 
History  of  Church  Architecture  and  Ecclesiastical  Art. 


CHAPTER   1. 
The  Tabernacle  and  the  Three  Temples  of  the  Jews. 

There  are  several  reasons  why  the  tabernacle  and  the  three  tem- 
ples of  the  Jews  are  of  particular  interest  to  the  believers  of  the  New 
Testament.  It  is  not  merely  that  we  feel  the  appeal  of  the  past  and 
that  the  fascinating  study  of  archeology  beckons  us  on.  This  factor 
can,  of  course,  not  be  neglected  in  a  study  of  this  kind.  It  is  un- 
doubtedly the  motive  which  promi^ted  the  investigations  of  De  Vogue, 
De  Saidcy,  Perrot,  Chipiez,  Friedrich,  Ewald,  and  others.  But  the 
interest  of  these  men  would  probably  have  been  just  as  great  in  the 
instance  of  a  Hittite  or  Sassanian  or  Assyrian  temple.  The  study  of 
the  past,  the  unveiling  of  mysteries  which  are  shrouded  in  the  veil  of 
uncertain  traditions  engages  their  attention  and  challenges  their  in- 
genuity. We  have  reasons  to  be  grateful  to  such  students  of  anti- 
quity. Their  zeal  in  more  than  one  instance  has  unearthed  treasures 
which  have  often,  in  a  most  remarkable  way,  substantiated  the  evi- 
dence of  Scripture.  A  mere  archeological  interest  may,  therefore, 
serve  to  stimulate  investigations  which  will  open  up  to  us  the  testi- 
mony of  the  stones. 

It  is  also  not  merely  the  fact  of  Jehovah's  having  planned  the 
first  edifice  of  His  cultus  on  earth  which  especially  engages  our  atten- 
tion, though  this  fact  is  also  interesting  enough,  in  itself.  It  may  be 
true,  of  course,  that  all  attempts  to  fix  the  symbolism  of  the  taber- 
nacle, its  furniture,  and  its  appointments,  outside  of  that  revealed  in 
Scriptures,  are  arbritrary.  Certain  it  is,  at  any  rate,  that  the  expla- 
nations of  Josephus,  Philo,  Maimonides,  and  the  early  Christian 
teachers  have  been  challenged  by  recent  scholars.  That  the  general 
plan  of  the  first  sanctuary  is  to  serve  as  a  model  for  the  houses  of 
worship  of  all  times,  was  stated  by  a  writer  not  long  ago.^^)  Accord- 
ing to  this  exposition,  the  tabernacle  is  a  type  of  the  human  organism, 
which  was  designated  by  Jesus  as  His  temple.  The  division  into  ves- 
tibule, sanctuary,  and  holy  of  holies  is  said  to  corresjMjnd  to  the  limbs, 
trunk,  and  head  of  man.  From  this  the  writer  argues  that  the  Jewish 
houses  of  worship  were  types  of  the  woman,  the  aller  Eva,  Mary,  tht? 


10)  Mnehe,  Die  iiantorule  Wuenfe  im  Kirchendiemte,  5.  6. 


THE  TABEHXACLE  AND  THE  THREE  TEMPLES  OF  THE  JEWS.         9 

mother  of  Christ,  and,  therefore,  in  the  last  analysis,  of  the  Xew 
Testament  Church.  Whether  the  author's  reference  to  Ezek.  44,  1 — 3, 
to  Daechsel's  explanation,  and  to  the  significance  of  the  "Golden 
Portal"  be  more  than  mere  conjectures,  can  hardly  be  determined. 
It  is  safe  to  assert,  however,  that  such  arbitrary  attempts  can  never 
evoke  more  than  passing  interest. 

There  are  other  reasons  which  compel  our  interest  and  make  us 
eager  for  every  possible  source  of  authentic  information  regarding 
these  Old  Testament  structures.  The  first  is  the  reason  of  religious 
sentiment.  For  none  of  the  structures  of  the  Jews  reached  or  even 
approached  the  magnificence  of  some  heathen  temples,  in  spite  of  the 
fact  that  the  actual  amount  of  gold  used  by  Solomon  exceeded  the 
wildest  dreams  of  the  heathen.  "The  temple  of  Jerusalem,  when 
isolated  from  its  accessories,  is  a  mediocre  and  small  edifice,  which 
can  bear  no  comparison  with  jthe  corresponding  structures  at  Karnak, 
Luxor,  the  storied  towers  of  Chaldea,  the  temples  of  Greece  and  Rome, 
or  Gothic  and  Kenaissance  churches."  ^^)  It  is  rather  that  the  temple, 
though  "twice  rebuilt  and  destroyed,  aided,  no  doubt,  by  the  sublime 
poetry  of  Holy  Writ.  —  has  taken  such  hold  on  the  imagination  of 
peoples  reared  on  the  teachings  of  the  Bible,  as  to  distance  every  other 
and  assume  colossal  proportions.  ...  It  is  a  monument  imique  in  the 
world  in  that,  having  left  no  traces  on  the  site  it  once  occupied,  yet 
it  has  lived  and  lives  in  the  memory  of  almost  all  classes  of  men."  ^-) 

The  other  reason,  however,  is  the  most  compelling  for  engaging 
and  holding  our  attention,  namely,  because  the  tabernacle,  and  especi- 
ally some  of  the  places  and  vessels  belonging  to  it,  have  become  typi- 
cal of  Christ  and  of  His  sacrifice  in  the  new  dispensation,  as  the 
Epistle  to  the  Hebrews  and  other  passages  of  the  New  Testament 
show.  If  there  were  no  other  reason  why  we  should  f(?el  the  appeal  of 
the  tabernacle  and  the  temples  of  the  time  under  the  Law,  this  one 
would  be  more  than  sufficient  for  every  one  interested  in  the  great 
High  Priest  and  Sacrifice  of  the  Christian  Church. 

The  faheitiacle  of  the  Jews  actuallj'  possessed  the  distinguishing 
characteristic  which  so  many  heathen  temples  claimed  for  themselves, 
both  the  pattern  for  the  sanctuary  and  of  all  the  appointments  thereof 
having  been  furnished  by  the  Lord,  Ex.  25,  8.  9.  This  sanctuary  was 
designated  by  various  names,  which  gave  a  clear  indication  of  its 
character  and  of  its  purpose.  It  was  called  "house,"  or  "tent,"  or 
"dwelling."  because  it  was  the  place  where  the  Lord  dwelt  in  the  midst 
of  His  people.    In  this  capacity  it  served  as  a  type  for  heaven,  Heb. 


11)  Perrot-C'hipiez,  Hiintnrif  of  Art  in  Sardinia.  Jnilea.  etc.,  112.    See 
also  Baehr,  Symhnlik  des  niosaischen  Kiiltiis,  1,  257 — 261. 

12)  Perrot-Chipiez,  113, 


10      THE  TABERNACLE  AND  THE  THREE  TEMPLES  OF  THE  JEWS. 

9,  2.  11.  24.  It  is  also  called  the  ''tent  of  coming  together,"  the  "tent 
of  witness,"  the  "tent  of  testimony,"  Num.  17,  6 — 9,  In  this  sanctu- 
ary, the  Lord  appeared  in  His  glory  before  the  people,  who  were 
gathered  there  for  His  service.  Here  He  spoke  to  them  by  the  mouth 
of  the  priests  and  gave  evidence  of  His  divine  power  and  majesty. 
The  place  of  God's  dwelling  among  His  chosen  people  is  finally  called 
"sanctuary"  and  "tabernacle,"  because  it  was  a  holy,  a  sanctified  place, 
separated  from  common  or  secular  use,  dedicated  entirely  to  Him 
whose  presence  in  this  sanctuary  was  promised.i^) 

The  tabernacle  formed  a  rectangular  parallelipiped,  being  thirty 
cubits  long,  ten  cubits  wide,  and  ten  cubits  high,  inside  measurement. 
Of  this  room,  one-third  was  partitioned  off  as  the  "holy  of  holies." 
The  framework  consisted  of  forty-eight  heavy  planks  or  pillars,  twenty 
of  these  being  used  for  the  north  and  south  wall,  respectively,  and 
eight  for  the  west  wall.    Each  pillar  was  ten  cubits  long  and  one  and 


THE  FRAME-WORK  OF  THE  TABERNACLE. 

one-half  cubits  wide,  being  furnished  with  two  tenons  at  the  lower 
extremity,  which  fitted  into  forty  sockets  of  silver  placed  on  the 
ground.  These  pillars  were  coupled  or  fastened  together  beneath  and 
also  above  the  head  with  bars  of  the  same  acacia  wood  of  which  they 
were  made.  The  middle  bar  above  reached  from  end  to  end,  thus  sup- 
plying the  ridge-pole  of  the  tent.  All  the  boards  were  overlaid  with 
gold,  as  well  as  the  bars  holding  them  together,  and  their  rings  were 
also  of  gold,  Ex.  26,  15 — 30.i*)  The  pitched  roof  of  the  tabernacle,  as 
well  as  the  walls,  was  formed  of  several  layers  of  curtains.  The  in- 
side curtain  was  of  fine  twined  linen  (byssos),  "and  blue,  and  purple, 
and  scarlet,  with  cherubim  of  cunning  work,"  Ex.  26,  1,  and  consisted 
of  ten  strips,  each  four  by  twenty-eight  cubits  in  size,  held  together 
by  loops  or  couplings.  The  middle  of  this  large  curtain  was  just  over 
the  partition  of  the  tabernacle,  thus  permitting  the  "holy  place"  to 
be  covered  as  far  as  the  front  opening,  while  the  "holy  of  holies"  was 
covered   both   on  ceiling   and   sides.      This   curtain   was   covered   by 


13)  Cp.  Baehr,  Symholik  des  mimt'iHchcn  Kultus,  I,  75 — 91. 

14)  Cp.    Rupprecht,    Bible   History    References,    79—81;     .Tosephus, 
Antiquities  of  the  Jeics,  Book  HI,  Chapter  VI;  Baehr,  I,  55 — 57. 


THE  TABERNACLE  AND  THE  THREE  TEMPLES  OF  THE  JEWS.   11 

another  of  goat's  hair,  consisting  of  eleven  strips,  four  by  thirty  cubits 
in  size.  The  outside  slielter  of  the  tabernacle  was  provided  by  rams' 
and  badgers'  skins. 

The  partition  between  the  two  rooms  of  the  tabernacle  was  formed 
by  a  richly-wrought  curtain,  hanging  between  the  walls  and  reaching 
from  the  top  to  the  bottom.  This  "veil,"  Ex.  36,  35;  Lev.  16,  2, 
2  Chron.  3,  14;  Matt.  27,  51,  or  "second  veil,"  Heb.  9,  3,  was  "very 
ornamental,  and  embroidered  with  all  sorts  of  flowers  which  the  earth 
produces,  and  there  were  interwoven  into  it  all  sorts  of  variety  that 
might  be  an  ornament,  excepting  the  forms  of  animals."  i^) 

The  tabernacle  was  surrounded  by  a  court,  one  hundred  cubits 
long  bj'  fifty  cubits  wide,  whose  enclosure  was  a,  screen,  five  cubits 
high,  of  fine  twined  linen.     The  curtains  of  the  enclosure  were  sus- 


THE  TABERNACLE  AND  ITS  COURT. 

pended  from  ropes  drawn  between  pillars  of  brass,  whose  capitals  were 
overlaid  with  silver,  and  which  stood  on  bases  of  bronze.  The  fifty- 
six  pillars  were  held  in  place  by  cords  fastened  to  tent-pins  of  bronze. 
The  entrance  to  the  court  was  on  the  east  side. 

The  position  or  orientation  of  the  tabernacle  with  its  court  was 
included  in  the  directions  given  by  God.  The  locality  and  the  con- 
dition of  the  ground  were  no  determining  factors,  but  the  cardinal 
points  of  the  compass.  The  front  of  the  tabernacle  was  to  face  toward 
the  east,  and  its  length  toward  the  north  and  south,  respectively, 
Nimi.  3,  38;  Ex.  26.  18;  20,  22;  36,  23—27.  Around  the  tabernacle 
with  its  court,  during  the  wilderness  journey,  were  grouped  the  twelve 
tribes  of  Israel,  Num.  3,  22.  29.  35.  38;  2,  2—25. 

The  sanctuary  stood  in  the  western  half  of  the  court,  being  di- 
vided, as  stated  above,  into  two  parts,  the  "holy  place"  and  the  "holy 
of  holies."     The  place  of  greatest  honor  and  sanctity  in  the  inner 


15)  Josephus,  Loc.  cit.,  §  4. 


12       THE  TABEUXACLE  AND  THE  THREE  TEMPLES  OF  THE  JEWS. 

sanctuary  was  occupied  by  the  "ark  of  the  covenant,"  Ex.  25,  10—16. 
It  was  made  of  acacia  wood  and  measured  two  and  one-half  cubits  in 
length  by  one  and  one-half  cubits  for  the  width  and  height.  It  was 
overlaid  with  pure  gold  and  had  a  special  decoration,  a  crown  or  girdle 
of  gold  at  the  upper  rim,  which  served  as  a  lip  for  holding  the  cover 
or  mercy-seat,  Ex.  25,  17 — 22 ;  Kom.  3,  25 ;  Heb.  9,  5.  This  cover  was 
made  of  pure  gold  and  was  decorated  with  two  cherubim  of  beaten 
gold  in  its  two  ends.  The  cherubim  had  their  wings  extended  and 
faced  each  other  over  the  center  of  the  kapporeth.  Above  the  mercy- 
seat,  between  the  wings  of  the  cherubim,  the  Lord  communed  with 
!Moses,  Ex.  25,  22.  The  ark  at  first  contained  only  the  tables  of  the 
testimony  which  the  Lord  gave  to  Moses,  the  ten  commandments 
written  in  stone  by  the  finger  of  God.  Later  there  was  deposited  here 
a  copy  of  the  book  of  the  Law,  Deut.  31,  25.  26,  a  golden  pot,  in  which 
three  quarts  of  manna  were  preserved,  Ex.  16,  33,  and  the  rod  of 
Aaron,  which  had  miraculously  budded  and  blossomed  and  borne 
fruit,  ]S:um.  17,  8.  10. 

The  sanctuary  or  holy  place  also  had  its  sacred  furniture,  Ex.  25, 
23—40;  37,  10—28;  31,  8;  35,  13;  40,  4.  22.  In  the  northern  corner, 
near  the  curtain  separating  the  outer  and  inner  sanctuary,  was  the 
golden  table  of  show-bread,  or  the  prothesis  table,  two  cubits  long  by 
one  cubit  wide  and  one  and  one-half  cubits  high.  It  was  made  of 
acacia  wood,  like  the  ark  of  the  covenant,  and  was  overlaid  with  gold 
in  the  same  manner.  It  was  also  carried  in  the  same  way,  by  means 
of  staves  that  were  passed  through  golden  rings  fastened  on  the  four 
corners.  The  golden  crown  of  which  the  text  speaks  was  probably  a 
decorated  molding  which  served  to  hold  objects  on  the  plate  of  the 
table.  This  table  served  as  a  stand  for  the  show-bread  or  the  dozen 
bread-cakes,  after  the  nimiber  of  tribes  in  Israel,  which  were  renewed 
every  Sabbath.  Across  the  room,  on  the  side  opposite  the  table  of 
show-bread,  was  the  golden  seven-armed  candlestick.  Its  size  is  not 
given  in  Scriptures,  but  according  to  Jewish  tradition  it  was  about 
three  cubits  high  and  two  cubits  wide.  It  was  made  of  pure  gold,  but 
hollow  inside,  giving  it  a  total  weight  of  eighty-six  pounds.  Its  rich- 
est decoration  is  described  in  the  text  as  having  consisted  of  knops 
or  pomegranates  and  flowers,  shaped  like  almond-blossoms,  which 
served  as  sockets  for  the  candles.  Near  the  inner  veil,  in  the  middle, 
stood  the  altar  of  incense,  Ex.  30,  1 — 10;  37,  25 — 28.  It  was  made  of 
acacia  wood  and  measured  two  cubits  in  height,  its  plate  being  a 
square  of  the  dimension  of  one  cubit.  It  had  a  projecting  rim  to 
prevent  the  falling-off  of  coals  or  sacrifice,  and  its  four  corners  were 
decorated  with  ornaments  in  the  shape  of  horns.  The  entire  altar^ 
with  its  ornaments,  was  overlaid  with  gold  and  was  furnished  with 


THE  TABERXACLE  AND  THE  THREE  TEMPLES  OF  THE  JEWS.   13 

golden  rings  to  facilitate  carrying.  It  was  called  the  altar  of  incense, 
because  the  priests  were  required  to  burn  incense  on  it  at  both  the 
morning  and  the  evening  sacrifice.  The  fire  needed  for  this  sacrifice 
had  to  be  taken  from  the  altar  of  burnt  offering  in  a  golden  fire-pan. 

Out  in  the  open  court  the  altar  of  burnt  offering  was  located, 
Ex.  27,  1 — 8.  This  brazen  altar,  as  it  is  often  designated,  had  a  frame 
of  acacia  wood,  which  was  overlaid,  together  with  the  horns,  with 
brass.  It  was  three  cubits  high,  with  a  plate  five  cubits  square.  A 
peculiarity  of  this  altar  was  a  sort  of  walk  suspended  on  three  sides, 
which  enabled  the  officiating  priests  to  tend  to  the  sacrifice.  It  is 
also  very  likely  that  there  was  a  slanting  approach  to  the  altar  from 
the  south,  Ex.  20,  26.  Between  this  altar  and  the  tent  was  the  brazen 
laver,  Ex.  30,  18;  38,  8.  Its  body  as  well  as  the  stand  were  made  of 
brass,  to  which  were  attached  the  mirrors  which  the  women  had  given 
as  a  part  of  their  contribution.^^)  The  law  required  that  the  priests 
wash  their  hands  and  feet  before  offering  sacrifice,  on  pain  of  death. 
All  the  small  vessels  used  in  the  court,  such  as  ash-pans,  fire-pans, 
shovels,  basins,  flesh-hooks,  etc.,  were  made  of  brass,  while  those  of 
the  tabernacle  proper,  the  dishes,  bowls,  spoons,  covers,  etc.,  were 
made  of  gold. 

But  even  as  the  architecture  of  the  tabernacle  was  prescribed  by 
the  Lord  and  all  its  vessels  made  according  to  the  patterns  which  He 
showed  to  Moses  on  the  mountain,  thus  also  the  garments  of  the 
priests  were  made  according  to  the  command  and  plan  of  God,  even 
as  to  material  and  colors,  Ex.  28.  The  garments  of  the  high  priest 
were  especially  costly  and  beautiful,  consisting  of  "a  breast-plate,  and 
an  ephod,  and  a  robe,  and  a  broidered  coat,  a  mitre,  and  a  girdle," 
v.  4.  The  colors  were  gold,  blue,  purple,  scarlet,  and  the  white  of  fine 
linen,  v.  5.  The  dress  of  the  priests  was  less  elaborate,  consisting 
principally  of  "a  white  linen  tunic,  reaching  from  the  neck  to  the 
ankles,  with  tight  sleeves,  and  held  together  aroimd  the  waist  with  a 
linen  girdle.  On  the  head  the  priest  wore  a  kind  of  tiara,  of  a  round, 
turban-like  shape." 

The  entire  plan  of  God  in  regard  to  the  place  and  manner  of  His 
worship  had  been  committed  to  Moses  during  his  stay  on  Mount  Sinai. 
After  his  return  to  camp,  he  lost  no  time  in  executing  the  command 
of  the  Lord.  Under  the  leadership  of  Bezaleel  and  Aholiab.  wise- 
hearted  men  came  together  and  fashioned  the  frame-work,  the  cur- 
tains, and  all  the  paraphernalia  of  the  tabernacle.  It  was  a  time  of 
joyful  sacrifice  and  of  happy  work.  And  when,  finally,  the  sanctuary 
had  been  reared  and  dedicated,  it  became,  as  the  Lord  had  intended, 
the  center  of  the  religious  life  during  the  long,  trying  march  through 


16)  Baehr,  SymhoUk  des  mosaischen  KuUits,  I,  479—486. 


14   THE  TABKKXACLE  AND  THE  THREE  TEMPLES  OF  THE  JEWS. 

the  wilderness  to  the  Land  of  Promise.  When  the  Scheehinnah,  the 
cloud  of  God's  glory,  arose  from  the  tabernacle,  the  people  continue*! 
their  journey.  From  it  the  Lord  spoke,  judged,  and  punished.  The 
ark  of  the  covenant  belonging  to  the  equipment  of  the  tabernacle  was 
the  first  to  cross  the  river  Jordan,  and  the  tabernacle  was  established 
as  the  national  center  of  worship  at  Shiloh,  as  soon  as  the  conquest 
of  Canaan  was  completetl,  Josh.  18,  1. 

For  more  than  four  hundred  years  things  remained  practically 
unchanged,  so  far  as  the  government  of  the  people  by  direct  or  in- 
direct theocracy  was  concerned.  And  during  these  centuries,  the 
tabernacle  remained  the  national  house  of  w^orship.  During  that 
whole  time,  the  Ix>rd  lived  in  the  midst  of  His  people  in  a  tent,  al 
first  in  Shiloh,  Judg.  20,  18.  2,3.  27;  1  Sam.  1,  3;  3,  3;  4,  3;  Ps.  78.  60; 
Jer.  7, 12.  14;  2  Sam.  7,  6.  7;  1  Chron.  17,  5,  then  at  Gibeon  or  Gibeah, 
1  Chron.  16,  39;  22,  29;  2  Chron.  1,  3,  for  a  while  even  at  Nob.  Mark 
2,  26;  1  Sam.  2.1,  6.  It  may  be,  however,  that  these  latter  names  refer 
to  the  same  locality  on  a  hill  (Gibea)  situated  between  the  four  towns 
Gibeon,  Gibeah,  Kireath  Jearim,  and  Xobe.  King  David  had  the  ark 
removed  to  Jerusalem,  2  Sam.  6,  2 — 19,  making  there  a  provisional 
tabernacle  of  curtains  until  he  might  be  able  to  build  a  temple.  But 
the  permission  to  carry  out  this  plan  was  withheld  by  God,  and  so  the 
first  temple  of  the  Jews  was  not  built  until  the  reign  of  Solomon. 
1  Kings  5,  6—8,  11;  2  Chron.  2,  1—5,  14. 

The  resources  of  Solomon  must  have  been  remarkably  large,  ac- 
cording to  the  account  of  the  Bible  and  that  of  Josephus,  especially 
if  one  considers  the  relatively  small  size  of  the  kingdom  over  which 
he  ruled.  Moreover,  he  enjoyed  the  friendship  and  secured  the  as- 
sistance of  Hiram,  the  king  of  Tyre,  with  whom  David  had  made  a 
treaty.  These  facts  enabled  Solomon  to  expend  vast  sums  of  money 
and  to  employ  a  great  army  of  men,  which  numbered,  all  told,  183,000 
Jews  and  strangers,  1  Kings  5,  13 — 18. 

The  temple  was  built  on  the  ancient  Mount  Moriah,  one  of  the 
hills  which  forms  the  range  of  Mount  Zion,  the  peak  of  this  name 
being  in  the  southwestern  part  of  the  city.  The  temple  mount  rises 
steeply  from  the  Tyropoeon,  on  the  south,  and  from  the  valley  of  the 
Kidron,  also  known  as  the  Valley  of  Jehoshaphat,  on  the  east.  In 
order  to  obtain  a  horizontal  space  for  the  building,  the  top  of  the  hill 
had  to  be  leveled  and  filled  up,  finally  serving  as  an  enormous  plinth. 
The  area  of  the  entire  sanctuary  was  in  the  shape  of  a  rough  square 
or  trapezium,  averaging  from  500  to  470  yards  from  east  to  west,  and 
from  325  to  300  yards  from  north  to  south.^")  The  wall  of  enclosure 
was  laid  on  bed-rock  and  consisted  in  part  of  huge  blocks  of  white 


17)  Perrot-Chipiez,  History  of  Art  in  Sardinia,  Judea,  etc. 


THE  TABERNACLE  AND  THE  THREE  TEMPLES  OF  THE  JEWS.   15 

lime-stone,  some  of  which  measured  more  than  twenty  feet  in  length 
anil  weighed  over  one  hundred  tons.  The  blocks  on  the  southeast 
angle  are  still  in  a  good  state  of  preservation.  This  angle  is  known 
as  the  place  of  wailing. 

The  architecture  of  the  temple  was  borrowed  from  the  art  of  the 
peoples  with  whom  the  Israelites  had  relations  or  with  whom  they 
came  in  contact.  Egyptian  conceptions  are  found  in  the  successive 
courts  and  in  the  lofty  entrance  pylons,  Phenician  and  Assyrian  de- 
tail and  workmanship  is  seen  in  the  cedar  wood-work,  over-laid  with 
metal  work,  and  in  the  platform  of  stupendous  masonry .i^) 

The  dimensions  of  Solomon's  temple  were  just  double  those  of 
the  former  sanctuary.     The  "holy  of  holies"  was  twenty  cubits  each 


THE  TEMPLE   OF  SOLOMON. 

way,  the  "holy  place"  had  the  same  height  and  width,  but  double  the 
length,  the  porch  and  chambers  were  eighty  by  forty  cubits,  and  thirty 
cubits  high,  and  the  court  measured  two  hundred  by  one  hundred 
cubits.  The  north,  west,  and  south  walls  of  the  sanctuary  proper  were 
concealed  by  a  three-storied  structure  of  chambers  or  small  cells, 
1  Kings  6,  5.  6. 

The  material  of  which  the  temple  was  erected  was  stone,  which 
had  been  so  carefully  prepared  as  to  fit  in  place  exactly,  without  the 
use  of  iron  instruments.  This  stone  wall  received  a  veneering  of 
cedar-wood,  both  inside  and  outside.  The  roof,  ceiling,  and  floor 
were  made  of  the  same  material.  The  floor  and  the  ceiling  were  given 
a  veneering  of  fir,  1  Kings  G,  15;  2  Chron.  3,  5.  The  entire  sanctu- 
ary, on  the  inside  at  least,  was  overlaid  with  gold,  whose  weight 
amounted  to  six  hundred  talents.  The  windows  were  probably  near 
the  ceiling.  They  were  windows  of  narrow  lights,  broad  within  and 
narrow  without. 


18)  Hamlin,  History  of  Architecture,  Chapter  V. 


16      THE  TABERNACLE  AND  THE  THREE  TEMPLES  OF  THE  JEWS. 

All  the  brass  and  metal  work  of  the  temple  was  made  under  the 
direction  of  Hiram  of  Tyre.  The  most  conspicuous  piece  of  work 
fashioned  by  this  artisan  were  the  ornaments  of  the  temple's  facade, 
two  brazen  pillars,  called  Jachin  and  Boaz,  1  Kings  7,  15;  2  Chron. 
3,  15 — 17.  These  pillars  were,  at  least  at  first,  eighteen  cubits  high, 
twelve  in  circumference,  and  four  fingers  thick.  According  to  the 
later  account,  they  may  afterwards  have  been  lengthened  to  a  height 
of  thirty-five  cubits.  These  pillars  received  ornamentation  in  the 
shape  of  chains  and  pomegranates.  Their  capitals  were  lily-shaped 
and  five  cubits  in  height.  These  famous  pillars  have  been  the  cause 
of  some  very  lively  discussions  among  scholars  who  were  anxious  to 
discover  some  special  purpose  for  them.  The  most  ingenious  expla- 
nation is  that  of  Fergusson,  who  writes:  "What  Solomon  erected 
was  a  screen  (chapiter)  consisting  of  two  parts,  one  four  cubits,  the 
other  five  cubits  in  height,  and  supported  by  two  pillars  of  metal, 
certainly  not  more  than  one  cubit  in  diameter,  and  standing  twelve 
cubits  apart."  i^)  But  there  is  nothing  in  the  text  to  support  this 
conjecture.  A  far  more  plausible  explanation  is  that  given  in  Schaff- 
Herzog:  "The  purpose  here  may  have  been  purely  architectural,  but 
the  pillars  are  probably  to  be  related  to  the  obelisks  and  pillars  that 
were  characteristic  of  Phenician  and  Canaanitic  temples." 

The  furniture  which  Solomon  provided  for  the  temple  was  of  a 
design  and  workmanship  harmonizing  with  the  grandeur  of  the  entire 
place  of  worship.  The  veil  separating  the  "holy  place"  from  the  "holy 
of  holies"  was  made  of  blue,  and  purple,  and  crimson,  and  fine  linen, 
and  was  decorated  with  cherubim.  ,  There  was  also  a  door  to  the  inner 
sanctuary,  made  of  olive-wood,  whose  lintel  above  formed  with  the 
door-posts  a  pentagon.  The  double  entrance  doors  to  the  "holy  place" 
were  of  cedar  and  cypress  and,  according  to  the  account  of  Josephus, 
were  also  supplemented  by  splendid  curtains.  The  ark  of  the  cove- 
nent  or  ark  of  the  testimony  was  again  assigned  its  place  in  the  "holy 
of  holies."  But  Solomon  also  placed  into  the  inner  sanctuary  or  naos 
two  cherubim,  made  of  olive-wood  and  overlaid  with  gold.  They  were 
ten  cubits  high,  and  their  wings  measured  ten  cubits  from  tip  to  tip. 
They  stood  facing  the  east,  with  their  outstretched  wings  meeting 
over  the  mercy-seat  and  touching  the  walls  on  either  side.  All  of  the 
wood  paneling  and  wainscoating  was  carved  with  figures  of  cherubim, 
and  palm-trees,  and  open  flowers. 

The  "holy  place"  again  received  the  altar  of  incense  and  the  table 
of  show-bread.  Instead  of  the  single  candlestick,  however,  Solomon 
had  Hiram  make  ten,  of  pure  gold,  five  on  the  right  side  and  five  on 
the  left,  before  the  oracle.    The  inner  court,  just  before  the  sanctuary. 


19)  A  Histwy  of  Architecture,  223. 


TUE  TABEKN'ACLE  AND  THE  THREE  TEMPLES  OF  THE  JEWS.   17 

was  the  principal  place  of  sacrifice.  There  stood  the  great  altar  of 
brass,  whose  height  was  ten  cubits  and  whose  top  was  twenty  cubits 
square.  Its  elevation  enabled  great  multitudes  in  the  outer  court  to 
witness  the  sacrifices.  The  approach  to  this  altar  was  probably  by 
means  of  a  long  incline,  and  a  platform  surrounded  the  altar  at  the 
proper  height  for  the  officiating  priests.  Near  the  altar  stood  the 
brazen  sea,  a  circular  basin,  ten  cubits  in  diameter,  five  in  height,  and 
a  handbreadth  in  thickness;  its  brim  was  slightly  curved  or  flared 
outward.  It  rested  upon  twelve  brazen  oxen,  which  were  arranged  in 
groups  of  three,  facing  the  cardinal  points.  In  addition  to  this  great 
basin  for  ceremonial  washing,  there  were  ten  large  lavers  or  kettles, 
which  were  set  on  ten  bases  of  brass,  four  cubits  square  and  three 
cubits  high,  placed  on  wheels  for  moving  the  instruments  readily. 
The  frame  of  these  bases  was  decorated  with  figures  of  lions,  oxen, 
and  cherubim.  The  purpose  of  these  lavers  was  to  serve  for  the  wash- 
ing of  sacrificial  animals,  1  Kings  7,  27 — 39.  Since  so  much  water 
was  used  in  the  temple,  it  was  necessary  to  have  a  full  supply.  This 
was  provided  by  means  of  aqueducts  leading  from  springs  and  built 
inside  the  rock.  In  a  similar  manner,  the  polluted  water  was  carried 
off  through  underground  sewers.^o)  All  the  smaller  vessels  for  use  in 
the  temple,  the  pots,  the  shovels,  the  flesh-hooks,  the  fire-pans,  etc., 
were  made  of  brass,  and  the  corresponding  vessels  for  the  sanctuary, 
including  also  the  tongs,  the  snuffers,  the  bowls,  the  spoons,  and  the 
censers,  were  of  pure  gold. 

When  this  temple  was  finished,  about  1005  B.  C,  it  was  dedicated 
with  appropriate  ceremonies,  1  Kings  8;  2  Chron.  5 — 7.  For  four 
centuries  it  served  as  the  central  sanctuary  of  the  Jews,  with  varj'ing 
vicissitudes,  depending  upon  the  character  of  the  ruler.  King  Ahaz, 
for  instance,  made  use  of  the  oxen  under  the  brazen  sea  to  pay  tribute 
to  the  king  of  Assyria,  2  Kings  16,  17.  18,  besides  performing  other 
deeds  of  desecration,  2  Chron.  28,  24.  25.  With  Zedekiah  came  the 
end.  Nebuchadnezzar,  king  of  Babylon,  destroyed  the  city  of  Jeru- 
salem, took  all  the  vessels  of  the  house  of  God,  both  great  and  small, 
and  burned  the  house  of  God,  2  Chron.  36,  17 — 19.  This  was  about 
586  B.  C. 

When  the  Jews,  under  the  reign  of  Cyrus,  and  later  under  that 
of  Darius,  were  permitted  to  return  to  their  devastated  country,  they 
set  about  rebuilding  the  city  of  Jerusalem  and  also  the  temple,  though 
it  required  some  urging  for  the  latter  task,  Hag.  1,  4.  Under  the 
leadership  of  the  priest  Zerubbabel  the  building  was  begun  about  the 
middle  of  the  year  520  B,  C.    The  altar  was  first  erected,  Ezra  3,  1 — 3. 


20)  Perrot-Chipiez,  History  of  Art  in  Sardinia,  Judea,  etc..  Chapter  II. 
Kretzmann,  Christian  Art.  2 


18      THE  TABERNACLE  AND  THE  THREE  TEMPLES  OF  THE  JEWS. 

When  the  foundations  of  the  temple  had  been  laid,  there  was  a  great 
celebration,  attended  by  shouts  of  joy  from  the  younger  generation, 
but  by  the  weeping  of  those  that  had  seen  the  first  temple.  In  spite 
of  the  opposition  of  the  Samaritans,  who  even  managed  to  hinder  the 
building  operations  for  some  time,  the  new  temple  was  finished  and 
dedicated  with  great  joy  about  516  B.  C. 

The  accounts  in  regard  to  the  second  temple  are  so  meager  that 
any  attempt  to  give  a  full  description  must  be  futile,  resting,  as  it 
does  to  a  great  extent,  upon  conjecture.  Fergusson,  indeed,  thinks 
that  it  was  built  after  the  description  of  Ezekiel,  but  that  its  materials 
and  ornamentation  were  inferior  to  those  of  Solomon's  temple.^i) 
But  the  prophecy  of  Ezekiel  is  undoubtedly  a  Messianic  one  and  can- 
not be  applied  to  the  temple  built  by  Zerubbabel.  By  comparing  the 
Bible  account  with  that  of  Josephus,22)  the  following  description  may 
be  given.  Josephus  quotes  Hecataeus  of  Abdera,  who  wrote  concern- 
ing the  second  temple:  "There  is,  about  the  middle  of  the  city,  a  wall 
of  stone,  whose  length  is  five  hundred  feet,  and  the  breadth  a  hundred 
cubits,  with  double  cloisters,  wherein  there  is  a  square  altar,  not  made 
of  hewn  stone,  but  composed  of  white  stones  gathered  together,  hav- 
ing each  side  twenty  cubits  long,  and  its  altitude  ten  cubits.  Hard 
by  it  is  a  large  edifice,  wherein  there  is  an  altar  and  a  candlestick, 
both  of  gold,  and  in  weight  two  talents:  upon  these  there  is  a  light 
that  is  never  extinguished  neither  by  night  nor  by  day."  That  the 
altar  was  of  unhewn  stone,  is  also  related  1  Mace.  4,  44 — 47.  The 
same  account  also  speaks  of  the  restoring  of  the  cells  of  the  priests, 
together  with  the  sanctuary,  of  the  making  of  the  golden  candlestick, 
the  table  of  prothesis,  and  the  altar  of  incense.  "The  ark  having  dis- 
appeared, its  place  in  the  'holy  of  holies'  was  taken  by  a  flat  stone 
called  the  shetiya,  upon  which  the  high  priest,  on  the  day  of  atone- 
ment, placed  the  censer"  (Schaff-Herzog). 

The  later  history  of  the  second  temple  has  many  dark  pages. 
The  sanctuary  was  desecrated  under  the  reign  of  Antiochus  the  ^oble, 
1  Mace.  1,  and  restored  by  Judas  Maccabeus  after  the  defeat  of 
Lysias,  chapter  4.  It  is  from  this  restoration  that  the  Feast  of  Dedi- 
cation dates.  In  the  course  of  the  years,  the  temple  was  fortified  so 
strongly  that  Pompey  was  obliged  to  lay  formal  siege  to  it.  After  he 
had  stormed  it,  he  penetrated  into  the  sanctuary,  but  did  not  touch 
any  of  the  treasures  belonging  to  the  temple.^s)  Later,  Herod  the 
Great  took  the  city  and  the  temple,  and  had  much  difficulty  in  re- 
straining the  soldiers  from  violating  the  sanctuary.^-*) 


21)  History  of  Architecture,  l^ook  IT. 

22)  Antiquities  of  the  Jeirs,  Book  XI,  I--1V;  Against  Apion,  Book  I,  22. 

23)  .Tosephiis.  Antiquities  of  the  Jews,  Book  XIV,  IV;    Wars  of  the 
Jews.  Book  I,  VII. 

24)  .losephus,  Antiquities  of  the  Jews,  Book  XIV,  XVI. 


THE  TABKKXAC  LK  AND  THE  THREE  TEMPLES  OF  THE  JEWS.   19 

When  Herod  had  finally  succeeded  in  establishing  himself  as  kincr 
of  Judea,  under  the  sovereignty  of  the  Romans,  he  conceived  the  plan 
of  rei)lacing  the  temple  of  Zerubbabel  by  a  new  and  magnificent 
structure,  rivaling  in  beauty  the  glorious  temples  of  (Ireece.  Accord- 
ingly, he  began  about  20 — 19  B.  C.  to  carry  out  his  design.25)  He 
first  of  all  assured  the  Jews  that  he  would  not  wreck  any  part  of  their 
temple  till  all  the  material  for  rebuilding  the  entire  sanctuary  had 
been  assembled.  It  is  probable  that  the  sanctuary  proper  or  naos  was 
erected  first,  in  order  not  to  interfere  with  the  religious  cult  of  the 
people.  Some  of  the  priests  became  carpenters  and  stone-cutters,  so 
that  no  profane  hands  need  touch  the  sacred  shrine.  The  old  temple 
was  taken  down  and  the  new  one  erected  in  the  space  of  eighteen 
months.  Hut  much  remained  to  be  done,  and  the  work  dragged  along 
imtil  after   Herod's  death.26)      The  entire  temple  was  in   i)rooess  of 


THE   TEMPLE   OF   HEROD. 

construction  for  forty-six  years  at  the  time  of  Jesus,  John  2,  20.  and 
the  last  details  were  not  put  into  place  until  the  year  64  A.  D.,  only 
six  years  before  its  final  destruction. 

Herod  practically  doubled  the  area  of  the  Solomonic  temple  by 
enlarging  the  hill  and  erecting  foundation-walls  of  enormous  blocks, 
some  of  them  measuring  twenty-five  cubits  long,  twelve  cubits  wide, 
and  eight  cubits  high.  The  various  courts  and  approaches  were  laid 
out  on  successive  terraces  or  elevations,  thus  affording  a  gradual  as- 
cent to  the  sanctuary.  The  entire  temple  area  was  enclosed  by  beauti- 
ful cloisters,  with  hundreds  of  slender  Corinthian  columns,  for  the 
architecture  of  the  edifice  followed  classical  lines.  On  the  south  was 
the  Royal  Court  or  Porch,  and  on  the  east  that  known  as  Solomon's 
Porch.  The  southern  half  of  the  temple  area  was  known  as  the 
"Court  of  the  Gentiles."  A  short  flight  of  steps  led  to  a  second  en- 
closure of  stones.     Bronze  tablets  bore  inscriptions  forbidding  any* 


25)  JosephuR,  Aiiti(iiiiti('S  of  the  Jeirs.  Book  XV,  XI. 

26)  Barton,  Archcoloou  (i»<l  the  Bible,  20S. 


20    THE  PLACES  OF  WORSHIP  OF  THE  EARLY  CHRISTIAN  CHURCH. 

.persons  but  Jews  to  enter,  on  pain  of  death.  This  court,  which  was 
on  the  level  just  beneath  that  of  the  sanctuary,  was  divided  into  three 
parts,  in  terraces:  the  Court  of  Women,  the  Court  of  Israel,  and  the 
Court  of  Priests,  the  last  surrounding  the  temple  proper  or  the  naos. 
In  addition,  there  were  galleries,  in  which  the  women  could  worship, 
since  they  were  not  permitted  in  the  space  before  the  great  altar;  a 
hall  where  the  Sanhedrim  met;  chambers  for  treasures  and  offerings; 
and  many  architectural  embellishments. 

The  vestibule  of  the  sanctuary  was  one  hundred  cubits  high  and 
just  as  wide,  though  only  twenty  cubits  deep.  The  measurements  of 
the  sanctuary  were  the  same  as  in  the  temple  of  Solomon.  There  was 
a  heavy  double  curtain  or  veil,  which  separated  the  "holy  place"  from 
the  "holy  of  holies,"  Matt.  27,  50;  Mark  15,  38;  Luke  23,  45.  The 
altar  of  burnt  offering,  in  the  priests'  court  before  the  sanctuary,  was 
thirty-two  cubits  square  at  the  bottom  and  twenty-four  at  the  top, 
thus  representing  the  frustum  of  a  pyramid.  The  blood  of  the  sacri- 
fices was  drained  away  through  subterranean  ducts  into  the  Kidron. 
The  altar,  as  well  as  its  approach,  were  made  of  unhewn  stone.  Be- 
hind it  was  a  bronze  laver  for  ceremonial  washing,  and  on  the  north 
was  the  place  for  the  preparation  of  the  sacrifices.  The  altar  of  in- 
cense, the  table  of  show-bread,  and  the  golden  candlestick  were  as- 
sigTied  to  their  old  places,  but  the  inner  sanctuary  seems  to  have  been 
bare,  with  the  exception  of  the  stone-plate  mentioned  above. 

The  glory  of  the  third  temple  was  only  of  short  duration.  Ac- 
cording to  the  prophecy  of  Jesus,  Mark  13,  2,  not  one  stone  of  the 
temple  was  left  upon  the  other.  When  Jerusalem  was  destroyed, 
70  A.  D.,  by  the  Romans  under  the  leadership  of  Titus,  the  entire 
complex  of  temple  buildings  was  razed.  The  golden  candlestick,  the 
table  of  prothesis,  and  other  articles  were  carried  to  Rome  as  trophies, 
and  their  sculptured  figures  adorn  the  arch  of  Titus.  They  now  very 
probably  rest  in  the  quicksands  of  the  Mediterranean  Sea,  near  the 
coast  of  Africa. 


CHAPTER  2. 
The  Places  of  Worship  of  the  Early  Christian  Church. 

So  long  as  the  Savior  was  on  earth,  bringing  the  message  of  sal- 
vation through  grace  to  the  people  of  Israel,  there  was  no  need  for 
special  houses  of  worship.  He  preached  the  Word  at  all  times  and  in 
all  places:  in  houses,  in  synagogs,  in  the  fields,  on  the  sea-shore,  in 
the  wilderness,  on  the  mountains,  in  the  temple.  His  disciples  at  that 
time  were  still  members  of  the  Jewish  church,  and,  with  Him,  per- 
formed the  outward  works  of  the  cultus.  After  the  day  of  Pentecost, 
indeed,  the  organic  connection  of  the  disciples  with  the  Jewish  Church 


THE  PLACES  OF  WORSHIP  OF  THE  EARLY  CHRISTIAN  CHURCH.    21 

was  loosened  and,  in  many  cases,  even  severed.  They  were  considered 
and  treated  as  heretics  by  the  religious  leaders  of  ,the  Jews.  So  long 
as  they  could,  they  continued  to  have  assemblies  in  one  of  the  many 
halls  of  the  temple,  Luke  24,  53;  Acts  2,  46;  3,  11—26;  5,  12.  42.  But 
reasons  of  prudence  soon  caused  a  withdrawal  from  such  public 
places.  It  became  the  custom  to  meet  in  the  houses  of  members  of 
the  congregation.  We  find  the  upper  room,  the  hyperoon,  mentioned 
as  a  place  of  assembly  and  worship,  Acts  1,  13;  20,  8.  There  was  a 
service  of  prayer  in  the  house  of  Mary,  the  mother  of  John  Mark, 
Acts  12,  12.  The  Christians  not  only  celebrated  the  Holy  Communion 
in  the  houses  of  the  members,  but  conducted  regular  preaching  ser- 
vices there  as  well,  Acts  2,  46;  5,  42  (kat'oikon).  The  apostle  Paul, 
indeed,  on  his  missionary  trips,  had  the  custom  of  conducting  services 
in  the  synagogs  of  the  Jews,  Acts  13,  14;  17,  1.  2.  10;  19,  8.  In  the 
course  of  these  journeys  he  preached  also  on  the  banks  of  the  river 
that  flowed  through  or  near  the  city  of  Philippi,  Acts  16,  13.  Later, 
when  all  his  efforts  in  behalf  of  the  Jews  met  with  a  cold  reception, 
he  spoke  daily  in  the  school  of  one  Tyrannus,  in  Ephesus,  Acts  19,  19. 
But  the  usual  meeting-places  of  the  little  bands  of  Christians  seem  to 
have  been  the  houses  of  members  of  the  congregation.  We  are  told 
that  Justus  of  Corinth  opened  his  house  to  Paul,  Acts  18,  7.  Peter 
preached  in  the  house  of  Cornelius,  Acts  10,  27.  That  the  holding  of 
services  in  private  houses  was  the  custom  in  Apostolic  days,  we  learn 
from  Rom.  16,  23,  where  Gains  is  called  the  host  of  the  whole  congre- 
gation ;  from  1  Cor.  16,  19,  where.we  read  of  a  church  or  congregation 
in  the  house  of  Aquila  and  Priscilla;  and  from  Col.  4,  15,  where  we 
are  told  that  there  was  a  church  or  congr^ation  in  the  house  of 
Nymphas.  This  custom  continued  into  the  second  century  and  be- 
yond. Clemens  Romanus  relates  of  a  rich  man,  Theophilus  of  An- 
tioch,  that  he  offered  his  house  to  be  dedicated  as  a  church.2")  And 
the  same  is  related  of  a  senator  in  Tours  at  the  time  of  Constan- 
tine.28)  In  the  case  of  small  congregations,  the  atrium  may  have 
been  large  enough  for  the  regular  meetings;  in  other  cases,  the  tdbli- 
mtm  and  even  the  peristylium  could  easily  have  been  added  to  accom- 
modate the  larger  number.^^) 

In  the  meantime,  we  find  evidence  that  the  Christians  b^an  to 
dedicate  halls  and  public  assembly  places  for  purposes  of  worship. 
Not  all  emperors  were  filled  with  the  bloodthirsty  hatred  of  Nei'O  and 
Diocletian  toward  the  Christians.  Ale.xander  Severus,  222 — 235,  and 
his  mother,  Julia  Mammaea,  were  more  than  lenient  toward  them. 


27)  Donius  suae  ingentem  basicilam  ecclesiae  nomine  consecraret. 

In  Alt.  Drr  kircJilichr  <lottf'f<(Ueii\t.  41,  note  1. 

2S)  CIradniann,  Geachichtc  dcr  cliristlichen  Kutist,  27. 

29)  (p.  Lowrie,  Monuments  of  the  Early  Church,  98.  99. 


22    THE  PLACES  OF  WORSHIP  OF  THE  EARLY  CHRISTIAN  CHURCH. 

The  domestic  chapel  of  the  emperor  was  filled  with  the  images  of 
those  heroes  who,  by  improving  or  reforming  human  life,  had  de- 
served the  grateful  reverence  of  posterity.  Among  these  heroes  ho 
reckoned  also  Abraham  and  Jesus.  "Under  the  reign  of  Severus,  the 
fury  of  the  populace  was  checked;  the  rigor  of  ancient  laws  was,  for 
some  time,  suspended;  and  the  provincial  governors  were  satisfied 
with  receiving  an  annual  present  from  the  churches  within  their  juris- 
diction, as  the  price  or  as  the  reward  of  their  moderation."  30)  It  is 
not  surprising,  therefore,  that  this  emperor,  in  a  controversy  between 
a  Christian  congregation  and  some  liquor  dealers  with  regard  to  a 
certain  piece  of  pul^lic  property,  decided  in  favor  of  the  former.^i) 
It  is  altogether  probable  that  indulgent  governors  and  magistrates, 
especially  under  Caracalla  and  other  lenient  emperors,  often  gave  the 
Christians  permission  to  use  the  public  halls  for  their  services,  since 
the  latter,  for  reasons  of  conscience,  could  not  use  the  temples  with 
their  altars  of  idolatry.  Any  suggestion,  indeed,  as  though  the  cultus 
of  the  Christians  had  anything  in  common  with  that  of  the  pagan 
religions,  either  as  to  places  of  worship  or  images  used  for  idolatrous 
purposes,  is  repudiated  with  the  greatest  emphasis  by  Origen,  Minu- 
eius  Felix,  Lactantius,  Arnobius.  and  others.32)  The  decided  dis- 
avowal of  Origen  was  directed  against  the  pagan  sacrificial  altars  and 
the  naos  or  niche  with  the  image  of  the  heathen  god.  He  does  not,  as 
some  scholars  have  thought,  deny  the  existence  of  Christian  houses 
or  places  of  worship. 

In  this  connection,  mention  mu5t  also  be  made  of  the  catacombs 
as  assembly  places  of  the  early  Christians,  especially  during  the  per- 
secutions, when  the  confessors  of  the  new  religion  were  often  hunted 
like  wild  beasts.  The  catacombs  were  subterranean  cemeteries  (coe- 
meterium  —  koimeterion),  the  sleeping  places  of  those  who  died  in 
the  faith.  They  are  found  not  only  in  Eome,  but  also  in  Naples, 
Syracuse,  and  other  cities,  even  in  Syria.  The  most  noted  ones  are 
those  along  the  via  Appia,  especially  those  of  Balbina  and  of  Callis- 
tus,  that  of  Domitilla  on  the  via  Ardeatina,  and  that  of  Lucina  on 
the  via  Ostiensis.  The  catacombs  are  subterranean  corridors,  with 
horizontal  excavations  in  the  walls,  which  are  often  widened  out  into 
cells  or  small  rooms.  Here  the  dead  were  deposited,  usually  in  sarco- 
phagi. The  larger  chambers,  including  the  tombs  of  martyrs,  were 
called  cryptae,  ordinary  chambers  cuhicula,  and  the  horizontal  tombs 
sepulcra  or  loca.  Some  of  the  crypts  were  designed  expressly  for 
Christian  worship,  as,  for  example,  that  of  Miltiades  in  S.  Callistus. 


30)  Gibbon,  Decline  auH  Fall  of  the  Roman  Empire,  I,  646. 

31)  Melius    esse,     ut    quomodocunque    illic    Deus    colatur,     quam 
popinariis  dedatur.    In  Alt,  Der  kirchliche  Gottesdienst,  41,  note  2. 

32)  Alt,  Dcr  lirchUche  Gottesdienst,  42. 


THE  PLACES  OF  WORSHIP  OF  THE  EARLY  CHRISTIAN  CHURCH.    23 

A  still  larger  chapel  is  a  crj-pt  iu  the  Ostriau  cemetery,  which  is  di- 
vided into  nave,  presbytery,  and  apse.  Another  very  interesting 
chapel  is  the  Capella  graeca  in  S.  Priscilla,  especially  on  account  of 
its  fine  decoration.  After  the  year  410,  in  which  the  invasion  of  Alaric 
took  place,  the  catacombs  were  no  longer  used  as  burial  places,  and  a 
few  centuries  later  even  the  crypts  of  the  martyrs  were  abandoned, 
their  bones  having  meanwhile  been  removed  to  the  altar-crj'pts  of 
various  churches  which  bore  their  names.33) 

That  there  were  special  places,  rooms,  or  buildings  used  expressly 
and  exclusively  for  church  purposes  and  designated  by  the  name 
church  at  least  as  early  as  the  latter  half  of  the  second  century,  is 
evident  from  several  passages  in  the  early  church  fathers.  Clemens 
Alexandrinus  calls  the  place  where  the  faithful  come  together,  ekkle- 
sia.  Tertullian,  in  a  sharp  criticism  of  those  Christians  that  made 
heathen  idols  for  a  living,  calls  the  domus  Dei  the  ecclesia.  Ilippo- 
lytus  in  one  instance  refers  to  the  oikos  theou,  in  another  to  the  eJc- 
klesia.  The  remark  of  Eusebius  in  regard  to  the  houses  of  prayer  and 
the  churches,  which  he  calls  ekklesiai,  is  well  known.  Even  Origen, 
in  a  homily,  speaks  of  such  as  bring  gifts  ad  ornatum  ecclesiae.  A 
little  later,  Cyprian  uses  the  designation  kyriakon  for  the  house  of 
worship,  and  we  find  the  word  conventiculum.  Still  later,  at  the  be- 
ginning of  the  fourth  century,  Optatus  of  Mileve  makes  the  statement 
that  there  were  more  than  forty  churches  in  Rdme  to  house  the  large 
number  of  believers.^*)  It  is  absurd  to  conjecture  that  these  assem- 
bly-places w?re  mere  cellae  cimiteriales.  On  the  contrary,  this  state- 
ment comes  in  the  nature  of  a  climax  to  show  that  the  Christians  of 
the  first  three  centuries,  even  before  the  toleration  edict  of  Constan- 
tine,  had  actual  church  buildings,  of  whose  size  and  beauty  they  had 
no  reason  to  be  ashamed.  In  addition  to  the  circular  church  at  Ante- 
l)ellius  in  Asia  Minor  and  one  of  the  basilican  type  at  Silchester  in 
England  enough  ruins  have  been  uncovered  in  the  last  decades  to  re- 
move all  doubts  as  to  the  truth  of  this  statement. 

This  introduces  the  question  of  the  manner  in  which  the  develop- 
ment of  Christian  architecture  took  place.  Various  scholars  have  an- 
swered the  question  by  pointing  to  the  forensic  basilica,  to  the  private 
basilica,  to  the  Roman  house,  and  to  the  cella  cimiterialis  as  the  type. 
Others  claimed  for  the  early  church  building  an  architectural  crea- 
tion. That  the  rectangular  form  of  the  early  church  building,  the 
so-called  basilica,  was  patterned  after  the  large  public  buildings  thus 
designated,  is  stated  with  or  without  restriction  by  Meurer,35)  Ham- 


33)  Cp.  Gradmann,  Geschichte  der  cJiristlichen  Kinist.  9—14;  ^reurer, 
Der  Kirchenhuii.  22—26;  Lowrie,  MonumciiU  of  the  Early  Church,  23 — 17; 
Hauck,  sub  Koimeterien. 

34)  Hauck.  .tub  Kirchenbau;  Alt,  Der  kirchlichc  Gottcsdienst,  43.  44. 

35)  Per  Kirchrnhau.  28. 


24    THE  PLACES  OF  WORSHIP  OF  THE  EARLY  CHRISTIAN  CHURCH. 

lin,36)  Fergusson,3")  Smith,^)  and  others.  The  idea  of  an  independ- 
ent artistic  creation  is  championed  by  Ziegeler.^^)  But  the  more 
plausible  conjecture  of  a  gradual  development  of  the  classical  dwel- 
ling, with  subsequent  additions  and  modifications,  is  held  by 
Schultze,^o)  Hauck,*!)  Gradmann,'*2)  and  has  been  defended  in  a  verj* 
convincing  manner  especially  by  Lowrie.  The  latter  writes:  "Cer- 
tainly the  most  attractive  theory  of  the  development  of  the  basilica 
which  could  be  advanced  is  that  which  refers  its  origin  to  the  private 
house,  and  the  Apostolic  custom  of  gathering  there  for  worship.  .  .  . 
We  have  ever5-  reason  to  believe  that  the  Lord's  Supper  was,  during 
the  Apostolic  age,  and  indeed  through  the  first  quarter  of  the  second 
century,  celebrated  invariably  in  a  private  house.  This  was  altogether 
natural  in  the  case  of  a  sacrament  which  was  in  its  institution  —  still 
more  obviously  in  its  prototype,  the  Passover  —  a  household  meal, 
and  represented  the  church  in  terms  of  the  family.  That  the  dwel- 
ling-house was  the  regular  place  for  the  celebration  of  the  Eucharist 
throughout  the  first  stadium  of  the  development  of  the  Eucharistie 
cultus  is  especially  important  in  this  connection,  because  the  practi- 
ces and  ritual  which  centered  in  the  Eucharist  have  always  been  one 
of  the  chief  factors  regulative  of  church  architecture,  and  nowhere 
more  obviously  than  in  the  case  of  the  basilica.  .  .  We  may  suppose 
that  the  earliest  churches  were  either  actually  dwelling-houses  v/hich 
had  been  adapted  and  perhaps  enlarged  for  Christian  worship,  or  new 
buildings  which  preserved  both  without  and  within  substantially  the 
appearance  of  the  private  house.  .  .  If  we  must  recognize  that  the 
scheme  of  the  basilica  was  prescribed  by  the  necessities  of  the  Chris- 
tian cultus,  we  must  recognize  that  the  cultus  was  in  turn  determined 
in  part  by  the  arrangement  of  the  private  house."  *3)  He  then  pro- 
ceeds to  show  how  the  peristyle  or  atrium,  together  with  the  tahlinum, 
and,  in  Roman  houses,  the  alae,  was  changed  by  a  colonnade  surround- 
ing the  impluviunij  permitting  also  the  introduction  of  clerestory 
windows,  into  an  ideal  hall  for  the  Christian  assembly.  The  idblinum 
became  the  apse,  the  alae  the  transepts.  The  fmidamental  scheme  of 
the  structure,  up  to  the  fourth  century,  also  the  light  construction 
and  other  factors,  made  the  Christian  basilica  a  building  different 
from  the  public  basilica  used  for  market  and  court  purposes  **)  In 
a  similar  way,  Hauck  describes  the  development  of  the  early  Christian 


36)  History  of*Architectiire,  Chapter  X. 

37)  History  of  Architecture  iti  All  Countries,  Part  I,  Book  IV;   Part 
II,  Book  I. 

38)  Architecture.  Classic  and  Early  Christian.  Chapter  ^I. 

39)  Einfuehrunf/  in  die  christliche  Kirchenhaulainst.  1. 

40)  Das  evanyelische  Kircheugehaeude.  5.  41)  Suh  Kirchenbau. 

42)  (Jeschichte  der  christlichen  Kuust.  27. 

43)  Monuments  of  the  Early  Church.  94—96.         44)  L.  c.  97—102. 


THE  PLACES  OF  WORSHIP  OF  THE  EARLY  CHRISTIAN  CHURCH.    25 

basilica.  He  distinguishes  a  first  period,  during  which  the  atrium  of 
Greek  and  Roman  houses  served  for  church  purposes;  a  second  period, 
when  the  nave  became  rectangular,  with  apse;  and  the  final  stage, 
when  the  size  of  the  congregations  made  the  basilica-form  of  church 
possible,  with  certain  modifications,  however,  which  distinguished  it 
from  the  public  or  forensic  basilica  (suh.  Kirchenbau). 

We  cannot  ignore  the  fact,  of  course,  that  a  great  many  of  the 
early  Christian  buildings  used  for  purposes  of  worship  had  the  cir- 
cular form  (Zentralbau),  or,  more  properly  speaking,  there  was  a 
polygonal  or  circular  base,  and  the  entire  arrangement  was  made 
with  reference  to  a  central  perpendicular  axis.  "This  principle  is 
exemplified  as  well  in  the  round  buildings  which  consisted  of  concen- 
tric colonnades,  covered  by  a  conical  roof,  as  in  those,  whether  poly- 
gonal or  round,  which  were  surmounted  by  a  dome.  The  dome,  how- 
ever, is  the  typical  example  of  this  principle,  and,  wherever  it  is 
employed,  it  exercises  a  strong  centralizing  effect."  •*5)  In  order  to 
understand  this  type  of  architecture,  it  should  be  remembered  that 
the  basilica  was  the  normal  type  of  churches  built  to  serve  congrega- 
tions assembled  for  worship.  "But  special  ritual  observances  or  the 
desire  to  display  princely  pomp  brought  about  the  use  of  the  circular 
structure,  which  became  the  normal  one  for  baptisteries  and  memorial 
churches."  *^)  The  best  designation  for  this  form  of  churches  is 
oratory.  "As  a  sanctuary  the  rotunda,  especially  in  the  natural  com- 
bination with  the  cupola  vaulting,  has  in  itself  a  powerful  signifi- 
cance. It  is  the  most  impressive  place  of  prayer,  for  the  cupola  is  the 
most  evident  type  of  heaven."  *'^)  In  the  few  instances  in  which  the 
central  building  was  used  for  preaching  services  and  for  celebrating 
the  Eucharist,  the  builders  added  a  semicircular  extension  with  a 
radius  considerably  smaller  than  that  of  the  building  itself.  In  this 
apse  were  located  the  seats  of  the  clergy,  on  a  raised  platform.  In  at 
least  one  ease,  that  of  the  Church  of  the  Apostles  in  Constantinople, 
the  altar  had  the  position  which  this  form  of  building  requires, 
namely  in  the  exact  center.  In  some  cases  heathen  temples  in  this 
style  were  remodeled  and  then  dedicated  for  Christian  worship.  The 
most  notable  case  is  the  Pantheon  of  Agrippa,  built  by  Valerian  un- 
der the  Emperor  Augustus,  which  Boniface  IV  accepted  as  a  gift 
from  the  Emperor  Phocas  and  dedicated  to  the  Virgin  and  the  Mar- 
tyrs. It  is  now  known  as  the  Chiesa  di  Sta.  Maria  dei  Martiri,  called 
Chiesa  della  Rotonda  for  short. 

In  most  cases,  however,  thei"e  was  no  attempt  at  making  these 
structures  into  regular  churches.  Their  most  frequent  use  was  for 
baptismal  chapels.     Some  writers  have  even  thought  that  they  were 


4o)  Lowrie,  Monuments  of  the  Early  Church.  131.  132. 

40)   S<'Iisi1f-IIer7.<)g,  Huh  Architecture.         47)  Gradnuiiin,  Op.  cit.,  48. 


26    THK  TLACES  OF  WORSHIP  OF  THE  EARLY  CHRISTIAN  CHURCH. 

developed  from  the  circular  baths  or  piscinae  of  the  classical  age.'*®) 
The  baptisteries  were  so  necessary  in  the  early  days  of  the  Church, 
since  most  of  the  candidates  for  baptism  were  adults,  and  since  the 
sacrament  was  commonly,  though  not  by  any  means  always,  admin- 
istered by  immersion.    In  other  instances,  buildings  of  this  type  were 


ENTRANCE  TO  THE  CHURCH  OF  THE  HOLY  SEPULCHER. 

used  for  mausoleums,  not  only  on  account  of  their  shape,  but  because 
of  their  monumental  solidity. 

The  central  type  of  church  building,  in  the  early  stages  of  Chris- 
tian architecture,  was  a  round  or  polygonal  structure,  whose  heavy 
dome  construction  required  a  very  solid  supporting  wall.  This  was 
usually  broken  or  relieved  by  a  series  of  niches,  partly  for  artistic 
considerations,  but  also  for  economy  in  the  use  of  building  material. 


48)  Ziegeler,  Eiufiiehnnifj  in  die  christliche  Kirchoihaulcunst.  13. 


THE  PLACES  OF  WORSHIP  OF  THE  EARLY  CHRISTIAN  CHURCH.    27 

The  exterior,  in  most  eases,  presented  little  ornamentation,  but  the 
interior  was  often  decorated  profusely  with  colored  plates  and  mo- 
saics. The  semicircular  niches  also  afforded  opportunity  for  arches 
resting  upon  engaged  columns.  In  some  cases,  elaborate  paneling 
was  employed,  especially  in  the  dome. 

A  few  of  these  ancient  buildings  have  remained,  exhibiting  their 
original  structure  and  ornamentation.  The  Church  of  St.  Greorge,  at 
Thessalonica,  S.  Stefano  Rotondo,  in  Rome,  and  the  Church  of  the 
Ascension,  at  Jerusalem,  were  used  for  general  church  purposes.  The 
Church  of  S.  Giovanni  in  Fonte,  at  Ravenna,  the  Arian  Baptistery, 
of  the  same  city,  and  the  Lateran  Baptistery,  in  Rome,  are  examples 
of  baptismal  chapels.  They  are  also  the  types  from  which  the  later 
splendid  baptisteries  of  Pisa  and  Florence  were  developed.  S.  Petro- 
nilla,  one  of  the  round  buildings  formerly  adjoining  the  first  Church 
of  St.  Peter,  in  Rome,  is  an  example  of  a  mausoleum  in  this  type. 
And  another  name,  which  is  still  better  known,  is  that  of  the  Chiesa 
Sta.  Costanza,  in  the  same  city,  erected  over  the  catacombs  of  Sta. 
Agnes,  and  originally  the  mausoleum  of  Constantia,  the  sister  or 
daughter  of  Constantino  the  Great.  The  further  development  of  the 
central  type  of  church  building  resulted  in  the  Byzantine  style,  which 
will  be  discussed  below. 

For  the  entire  West  and  wherever  its  influence  was  potent 
enough,  the  basilica  in  its  Christian  form  became  the  model.  It  was 
an  edifice  eminently  suited  for  the  cultus  of  the  Christian  religion. 
The  preaching  service  of  the  congregation  was,  in  its  essential  parts,' 
modeled  after  that  of  the  synagog,  and  consisted  of  prayers.  Scripture 
readings,  and  exposition.  It  demanded  an  elevated  position  for  the 
elder,  a  reading  desk  for  the  lector,  a  place  where  the  assembly  could 
hear  well.  In  addition  to  this,  the  Christian  service  demanded  a  table 
for  the  Eucharist.  All  this  could  be  provided  for  by  a  division  of  the 
church  building  as  had  been  suggested  by  St.  John,  who  distinguishes 
between  the  thysiasterion,  or  altar,  the  naos,  or  temple  nave,  and  the 
aule  he  exothen,  the  outside  hall,  Rev.  11,  1.  2.^^) 

In  agreement  with  these  fundamental  factors,  the  Christian  ba- 
silica consisted  of  three  main  parts.  In  front  of  the  entrance  of  the 
church  was  the  afriutn  or  fore-court.  It  was  an  open  space  sur- 
rounded by  a  covered  arcade,  portico,  or  cloister.  In  the  center  of 
this  court  was  the  cantharus,  a  fountain  or  basin  of  pure  water. 
Here  the  ceremonial  ablutions  of  hands,  face,  and  feet  took  place. 
The  practise  is  continued  in  the  Catholic  Church  in  the  custom  of 
making  the  sign  of  the  cross  with  holy  water  before  entering  the 
church.     The  cantharus  was  usually  surrounded  by  a  balustrade  of 


49)  Cp.  Gradnianii,  GeschicMe  der  christUchen  Kiiiist.  28. 


28    THE  PLACES  OF  WORSHIP  OF  THE  EARLY  CHRISTIAN  CHURCH. 


Matrons 


Go9- 

pel 


Choih 


fpist 


Monks 


W'o/r7t 


Men 


Catechottnen/  Poeni  testes 


Audi  cntcs 


Lijcfei^tcs   H lennantcs 


I    1  Cantharus 
f^arthtrx 


PLAN    OF    THE    LATER    BASILICA. 


THE  PLACES  OF  WORSHIP  OF  THE  EABLY  CHRISTIAN  CHURCH.    29 

sculptured  marble;  it  was  very  frequently  surmounted  by  an  orna- 
mental roof  supported  on  columns-^*^)  The  atrium  was  the  place  of 
the  poenitenies,  the  locus  lugentium  sive  hiemantium,  for  such  as  were 
being  disciplined  severely  were  not  permitted  to  enter  the  church 
proper  until  their  time  of  penance  was  over.  Here  also  the  instruc- 
tion of  the  catechumens  and  the  feeding  of  the  poor  took  place.^i) 
The  arcade  in  front  of  the  building  formed  a  porch  or  vestibule,  which 
was  called  narthex.  Since  the  atrium  was  not  indispensable,  this 
vestibule  fully  compensated  for  its  absence,  especially  in  the  Orient. 
It  was  often  constructed  in  several  stories,  and  then  usually  contained 
the  stairway  to  the  galleries  of  the  church.  In  some  cases,  baptis- 
teries or  round  towers  were  built  adjoining  the  atrium. 

The  church  proper  was  usually  a  rectangle,  known  as  the  body  or 
nave.  The  very  name  indicates  the  symbolical  conception.  The 
church  was  conceived  as  a  ship  under  full  sail,  riding  forward  to 
heaven  and  eternity.  For  that  reason,  the  principle  of  length  was 
always  observed.  And  the  length  of  the  church  building  was  com- 
monly orientated,  as  we  learn  from  the  Apostolic  Constitutions,  ex- 
cept where  local  considerations,  the  position  of  a  martyr's  grave,  the 
location  of  bodies  of  water,  etc.,  made  a  deviation  from  the  rule  per- 
missible. Since  the  Romans  and  Greeks  had  built  their  temples  so 
that  the  morning  sun  shone  through  the  opened  doors,  the  Christians, 
avoiding  even  the  appearance  of  evil,  had  the  doors  of  their  churches 
in  the  west  and  the  altar  in  the  east,  signifying  that  the  light  of  the 
Gospel  came  from  the  Orient.  The  width  of  the  church  hall  was 
commonly  broken  by  either  three  or  five  aisles,  of  which  the  central 
one  was  the  widest,  and  was  called  the  nave  proper.  Its  roof  was 
raised  above  the  aisles,  thus  forming  clerestory  walls  with  windows. 
The  width  of  the  side  aisles  was  usually  about  half  that  of  the  middle. 
The  height  of  the  nave  was  not  great  in  proportion  to  its  length; 
throughout  the  building  there  was  a  preponderance  of  horizontal  lines. 

Immediately  inside  the  doors,  in  the  rear  of  the  nave,  was  the 
place  for  those  who  were  not  yet  members  of  the  congregation,  the 
catechumens,  the  poenitentes  of  the  lesser  grade,  and  the  Jews  and 
Gentiles,  all  of  whom  were  mere  audientes  (hearers).  A  little  far- 
ther forward,  and  in  the  side  aisles,  the  consistentes,  who  were  re- 
fused the  Sacrament  for  a  time,  as  the  mildest  form  of  penance,  and 
beyond  them,  the  men  and  women  members  of  the  congregation  had 
their  place.  Those  who  were  held  in  high  honor  in  the  congregation, 
widows,  virgins,  deaconesses,  and  those  whom  their  age  and  social 
position  rendered  worthy  of  peculiar  regard,  had  their  place  in  the 
forward  end  of  the  aisles  or  in  the  transepts.    In  the  east  end  of  the 


50)  Lowrie.  Op.  eit.,  179.  51)  Gradmanii,  Op.  cit.,  29. 


30    THE  PLACES  OF  WORSHIP  OF  THE  EARLY  CHRISTIAN  CHURCH. 

nave  was  the  choir,  sometimes  on  a  level  with  the  nave,  then  aprain 
even  with  the  floor  of  the  apse,  and  enclosed  by  a  balustrade,  which 
was  often  designated  as  the  chancel,  just  as  the  screen  or  railing  of 
the  apse  was  later.  There  was  an  ambo  or  reading  pulpit  on  either 
side  of  the  choir,  the  one  on  the  south  side  being  devoted  to  the  read- 
ing of  the  Epistle,  and  the  other  for  the  reading  of  the  Gospel.  The 
?pace  inside  the  nave  chancels  or  curtains  was  set  aside  for  the  choir 
and  the  other  inferior  clergy,  such  as  acolytes  and  subdeacons.  Even 
in  the  early  days,  but  oftener  after  the  coalition  of  the  Gallican 
Church  with  that  of  Rome,  the  transept  was  added  in  the  eastern  end 
of  the  nave,  giving  to  this  part  of  the  church  the  form  of  a  capital  T, 
which  was  considered  by  many  the  shape  of  the  cross  of  Christ.  But 
the  transept  was  probably  not  added  for  symbolical  reasons  only,  but 
was  rather  suggested  by,  or  developed  from,  the  alae  of  the  classical 
dwelling. 

The  entire  arrangement  of  the  church  building,  especially  the 
observation  of  the  principle  of  length  and  the  orientation,  drew  at- 
tention to  the  altar  space  or  chancel,  as  it  is  now  called.  This  part 
of  the  church  building  was  a  round  or  jDolygoual  extension  on  the 
eastern^end.  The  large  entrance  arch  leading  from  the  nave  to  the 
apse  was  called  the  triumphal  arch.  The  chancel  or  apse  was  called 
the  preshyterium,  since  it  contained  the  sedilia  of  the  higher  clergy; 
apsis^  exedra,  or  concha,  on  account  of  its  form;  trihuna  or  tribunal, 
because  the  magistrates  occupied  a  similar  room  in  the  civil  basilica; 
and  hema,  because  its  floor  was  raised  several  feet  above  that  of  the 
nave.  The  bishop's  chair  or  cathedra  stood  at  the  head  of  the  apse, 
elevated  several  feet,  so  that  the  bishop  could  easily  be  seen  above  the 
altar,  which  stood  at  the  entrance  to  the  apse,  below  the  triumphal 
arch.  On  either  side  of  the  cathedra  were  the  seats  of  the  presbyters, 
while  the  deacons  stood  near  the  altar. 

The  basilicas  were  usually  constructed  of  brick  or  stone.  The 
pillars  supporting  the  clerestory  walls  and  separating  the  nave  from 
the  aisles  were  often  taken  from  classical  buildings,  although  this 
form  of  vandalism  was  not  practised  so  much  as  has  been  alleged. 
The  roofs  were  made  of  wood,  supported  on  trusses,  the  ceiling,  as  a 
rule,  being  constructed  of  paneling.  The  small  openings  of  the  wood 
or  stone  windows  were  fitted  with  colored  lights.  There  were  varia- 
tions, of  course,  some  churches  being  more  pretentious,  others  less  so 
than  the  type  described  here.  For  such  is  the  description  which  we 
obtain  from  an  oration  by  Eusebius,52)  from  the  regulations  of  the 
Apostolic  Constitutions,^^)  Qyn\  from  the  extant  churches  of  the  type. 


.52)  Church  HMnrij.  X:   4.  .).1)  Book  IT.  ("luipter  " 


THE   BYZANTINE  STYLE.  31 

Biliee  some  of  them  have  been  preserved  in  essentially  the  same  form 
as  they  were  built.^^) 

Of  the  many  interesting  basilicas  of  the  early  Church  which  have' 
been  preserved  or  restored,  as  nearly  as  possible,  to  their  original 
form,  the  following  may  receive  mention  here.  In  the  year  326  Con- 
stantine  erected  the  Church  of  the  Holy  Sepulcher  at  Jerusalem. 
There  was  a  great  five-aisled  basilica  for  the  assembly  of  the  wor- 
shipers. A  very  interesting  structure  was  the  old  basilica  of  St. 
Peter's,  in  Kome,  which  preceded  the  present  monumental  edifice. 
Other  basilicas  of  Kome  were  Sta.  Maria  Maggiore,  Sta.  Agnese,  S. 
Lorenzo,  S.  Clemente,  Sta.  Sabina,  and  S.  Paolo  fuori  le  Mura,  which 
was  destroyed  by  fire  in  1823,  but  immediately  rebuilt.  Noteworthy 
examples  were  also  in  Ravenna :  S.  Apollinare  in  Classe,  Sta.  Agata, 
and  S.  Spirito.  Among  the  churches  of  the  Orient  which  had  this 
form  were  the  basilicas  in  Kalb-Lused,  Turmanin,  and  Ruweha,  Syria, 
and  those  of  Tj're,  Xicomedia,  and  especially  S.  Demetrio,  of  Salo- 
niki,  which  was  recently  destroyed  in  the  great  fire  which  swept  the 
city.  The  Church  of  the  Nativity  at  Bethlehem  is  hardly  to  be  dis- 
tinguished, in  its  strict  adherence  to  type,  from  the  western  basilicas. 
Recent  explorations  and  excavations  in  Africa  have  shown  that  ba- 
silicas were  comparatively  common  in  the  early  centuries  of  the 
Christian  era. 


CHAPTER  3. 
The  Byzantine  Style. 

It  is  a  peculiar  fact  based  upon  the  liturgical  ideas  of  the  Eastern 
Church  that  the  ecclesiastical  structures  of  the  Orient  followed  an 
essentially  different  line  of  development  than  those  of  the  West.  And 
since  architecture,  in  a  measure  even  more  than  the  other  arts,  is  an 
expression  and  revelation  of  the  cultus  of  the  respective  ecclesiastical 
organization,  this  development  is  particularly  interesting.  The  Greek 
liturgy  is  a  drama  of  great  intensity  and  symbolical  presentation,"^) 
and  the  Byzantine  churches  bear  a  strong  resemblance  to  theaters. 
The  nave  is  reserved  for  the  audience,  the  sanctuary  or  apse  with  its 
side  chapels  is  the  stage.  There  are  also  a  number  of  doors  and  cur- , 
tains,  each  of  which  has  its  symbolism.  Even  the  narthex  is  employed 
for  a  portion  of  the  dramatic  representation.  The  cupola  or  dome  is 
a  picture  of  heaven,  bathed  in  a  flood  of  light  to  draw  the  attention 


54)  Gradmann.  Op.  cit.,  27—35;  Ziegeler,  2—7;  Schultze,  5—8; 
Meurer,  27 — 37;  Alt,  Her  kirchliche  dottesdieiist,  51 — 55;  Lowrie,  101 — 
131;  Hartilin,  Chapter  X;  Smith.  Chajiter  XI:  Collett-Sandars,  Book  II. 
A,  Chapter  I. 

55)  Alt,  Der  kirchliche  Gottesdietist,  204. 


32  THE  BYZANTINE  STYLE. 

upward.  The  heavy  columns  upon  which  the  weight  of  the  dome 
rests  in  such  an  obvious  manner,  are  the  priests  that  form  the  means 
of  communication  between  earth  and  heaven. 

These  ideas  found  their  best  expression  in  the  central  type  of 
building,  although  the  basilican  principle  of  length  is  sometimes  in- 
troduced. The  simple  polygonal  or  circular  church  was  not  large 
enough  to  accommodate  large  assemblies.  In  order  to  gain  more  room 
without  interfering  with  the  fundamental  idea  of  the  building,  the 
niches  were  often  extended  into  small  alcoves,  as  in  the  Church  of 
S.  George  at  Esra.  In  the  church  at  Bosra  the  apse  with  the  choir 
extends  to  the  center  of  the  edifice,  and  there  are  two  small  chapels, 
one  on  either  side  of  the  sanctuary.  In  some  cases,  the  churches  were 
built  in  the  form  of  a  Greek  cross,  with  a  polygonal  or  circular  dome 
over  the  center.  To  this  class  belonged  the  Church  of  the  Apostles 
at  Constantinople,  built  by  Constantine  as  a  mausoleum  for  himself 
and  his  family.  This  church  was  the  model  for  one  built  by  St.  Am- 
brose in  Milan,  in  382,  as  well  as  for  some  smaller  ones.  The  cross- 
shaped  church  surrounding  the  well  of  Jacob  in  Samaria  also  be- 
longed to  this  type. 

For  a  few  centuries  after  the  Council  of  Xicea,  the  importance 
of  the  sermon  was  still  recognized,  and  therefore  some  churches  made 
allowances  for  this  requirement.  A  notable  instance  is  the  Church 
of  Sta.  Irene  at  Constantinople,  where  some  effort  seems  to  have  been 
made  to  indicate  horizontal  direction.  But  the  result  is  altogether 
unsatisfactory,  since  neither  the  central  disposition  is  maintained 
nor  the  requirement  of  length  satisfied.  The  ceiling  is  a  compromise, 
doing  justice  to  neither  idea.  S.  Vitale  in  Ravenna  is  another  exam- 
ple. But  here  the  massive  supporting  columns  and  piers  interfered 
very  decidedly  with  the  idea  of  length.  And  whenever  the  concept  of 
the  central  type  was  accentuated,  as  in  the  Church  of  S.  Lorenzo  in 
Milan,  the  addition  of  the  apse  and  of  chapels  give  the  entire  plan  a 
disjointed  appearance,  entirely  at  variance  with  the  principle  of  unity. 
Half  domes,  set  over  the  arms  of  the  church,  rising  gradually  to  the 
great  central  cupola,  were  a  great  aid  to  the  external  symmetry  of  the 
building,  but  proved  of  no  help  for  the  further  improvement  of  the 
interior. 

It  was  not  until  the  oblong  plan  of  church  building  was  intro- 
duced that  a  satisfactory  solution  of  the  question  of  combining  the 
Byzantine  idea  with  the  basilican  principle  was  reached.  At  the 
same  time,  the  application  of  the  pendentive,  the  spherical  triangle 
of  masonry  arising  from  the  pier  below  and  forming,  with  its  mates, 
a  solid  circle,  from  which  the  dome  could  rise  like  a  beautiful  hemi- 
sphere, was  most  successful.     This  culmination  of  the  first  period  of 


THE  BYZAXTIXE  STYLE. 


33 


Byzantine  architecture  had  not  only  the  characteristics  of  a  vaulted 
or  domed  basilica  and  the  use  of  the  pendentive,  but  it  also  made  use 
of  buttres>.es  and  had  the  interiors  richly  decorated,  with  carved 
details. 

The  most  perfect  building  embodying  the  ideas  and  characteris- 
tics of  this  style  is  the  Hagia  Sofia,    at  Constantinople.     The  first 


m 

i 

_ 

h 

M 

it* 

^^^VIil^^H 

^n '    •*  n 

■a 

"^41 

Ik 

1^. 

^ 

-J-    : 

Church  of  the  Holy  Wisdom  (the  divine  Logos,  Jesus  Christ)  was 
built  by  Constantine  as  his  cathedral  shortly  after  the  first  Council 
of  Xicea.  When  this  church  was  destroyed  by  fire  during  the  Nika 
Rebellion,  in  the  year  532,  the  emperor  Justinian  resolved  to  replace 
it  with  the  most  perfect  as  well  as  the  most  splendid  church  palace 
over  erected.  Since  he  spent  the  greater  part  of  his  reign  in  building 
large  and  beautiful  churches,  each  of  which  was  cojisidered  a  master- 
Kretzmann,  Christian  Art.  3 


34  THE   BYZAXTIXE  STYLE. 

piece  by  the  historian  Proeopius,  his  enthusiastic  ambition  niarle  use 
of  all  resources  to  realize  his  ideal.  He  employed  Anthemios  of  Tral- 
les  as  architect  and  builder.  On  the  26th  of  December,  537,  this 
masterpiece  of  the  art  of  architecture  was  dedicated.  And  so  thor- 
oughly had  the  ambition  of  Justinian  been  realized,  so  exactly  had 
his  ideas  been  executed  that  he  had  some  cause  for  his  proud  excla- 
mation, ^'O  Solomon,  I  have  surpassed  thee!"  But  twenty-two  years 
after  its  completion,  a  part  of  the  dome  was  destroyed  during  an 
earthquake.  Justinian  immediately  charged  Isidorus  of  Milet  with 
its  reconstruction.  The  execution  of  this  commission  fully  measured 
up  to  the  standard  of  the  first  dome.  On  Christmas  Eve  of  the  year 
563  the  church  was  dedicated  for  the  second  time.  This  splendid 
building,  used  as  a  mosque  by  the  Turks  since  the  capture  of  Con- 
stantinople in  1453,  will  now  probably  be  reconverted  into  a  Christian 
church.  In  that  case,  the  beautiful  mosaics  and  inscriptions  that 
have  been  covered  by  a  coat  of  paint  will  again  be  restored,  and  the 
minarets  and  other  exterior  additions  which  have  nearly  transformed 
the  appearance  of  the  church  will  be  removed. 

The  ground-plan  of  Hagia  Sofia  shows  a  three-aisled,  oblong  ba- 
silica. Its  center  is  a  circle  inscribed  in  a  square.  On  either  side  of 
this  square  is  a  half-circle  of  the  same  diameter  as  the  center  one. 
The  half-circles,  in  turn,  open  out  into  three  semicircular  cells.  One 
of  these  is  the  apse.  Opposite  this  concha  is  the  opening  to  the  nar- 
thex  and  the  atrium.  There  are  nine  doors  to  the  narthex,  five  to  the 
atrium,  and  there  was  probably  a  special  vestibule  with  three  -great 
portals. 

The  dimensions  of  the  church  are  in  themselves  almost  enormous. 
The  building  proper  has  the  shape  of  a  rectangle,  being  approximately 
250  feet  long  by  235  feet  wide.  The  distance  between  the  four  pil- 
lars whose  pendentives  directly  bear  the  weight  of  the  dome,  is  110 
feet.  The  nave  is  just  twice  as  long  as  it  is  broad,  measuring  200  by 
100  feet,  and  the  ceiling  of  the  dome  rises  180  feet  above  the  center 
of  the  floor.     The  area  enclosed  is  approximately  70,000  square  feet. 

The  illumination  was  unusually  generous.  "Windows  are  pierced 
freely,  not  only  in  the  high  side  walls,  but  in  the  half -domes,  in  the 
apse,  and  in  the  niches,  while  the  crown  of  windows  which  illuminates 
the  whole  circumference  of  the  dome  seems  to  isolate  it,  as  though  it 
were  suspended  in  the  air."  ^6)  Enormous  sums  of  money  were  ex- 
pended for  decoration,  in  order  to  make  this  church  the  finest  tho 
world  had  ever  seen.  The  surface  of  the  walls  and  the  vaulting,  as 
well  as  the  floor,  was  constructed  of  elaborate  work  in  mosaics,  inlaid 
with  gold.     The  ornamentation  was  gorgeous  to  an  exti-eme  degree. 


56)  Lowrie,  Maiiinnvnts  af  the  F.arJij  ChiircJi.  l.'xS. 


THE   BYZAXTIXK   STYLE. 


3& 


The  bishop's  chair  was  decorated  with  silver.  There  were  pictures  of 
angels,  of  apostles,  of  the  Virgin.  The  altar  was  overlaM  with  gold 
and  set  with   precious   stones.      Together   with   its  eiborium   it   was 


valued  at  40,000  pounds  of  silver.  One  of  the  ambons  is  said  to  have 
been  worth  one  year's  income  from  Egypt.  The  illumination  at 
night,  according  to  Paulus  Silentiarius,  was  made  by  means  of  three 
great  circles  of  lights  suspended  from   the  dome,  supplementetl  by 


36  THE   BYZAXTIXE  STYLE. 

rows  of  lamps  and  candelabra  along  the  walls.  "Any  one  that  ever 
has  seen  a  dome,  for  instance  that  of  Venice  or  Padua,  illuminated 
by  night,  may  have  a  faint  conception  of  the  vaultings  of  the  Hagia 
Sofia  on  the  night  of  Easter,  shining  in  the  volume  of  light,  appar- 
ently enlarged  into  infinitude,  as  the  marble  walls  and  gold  back- 
igrounds  and  precious  vessels  reflected  the  light,  a  wonderful  picture, 
in  which  all  the  glory  of  the  ancient  Oriental  empire  was  exhibited 
and  consecrated  through  the  mysteries  of  the  church."  5'^) 

Some  writers  on  architecture  seem  almost  unable  to  find  the 
proper  expressions  to  describe  their  appreciation  of  this  palace  among 
the  ancient  churches,  and  its  effect  upon  the  visitor.  "Never  has 
stability  and  daring,  the  eclat  of  color  and  purity  of  lines,  never  has 
the  genius  of  Eome  and  that  of  the  Orient,  been  associated  in  a  more 
astonishing  and  a  more  harmonious  whole,"  says  Choisy.^S)  Another 
recent  writer  calls  the  Hagia  Sofia  "the  most  perfect  and  most  beauti- 
ful church  which  has  yet  been  erected  by  any  Christian  people.^^) 
And  a  noted  lecturer  says  of  it:  "There  are  few  impressions  more 
powerful  than  that  which  one  receives  when  the  interior  of  this  build- 
ing bursts  upon  the  astonished  gaze.  It  is  in  some  respects  more 
overpowering  than  that  of  Cologne  Cathedral,  or  St.  Peter's  at  Rome. 
For  there  are  here  no  such  chapels  or  side-aisles  as  we  find  in  most 
cathedrals.  Its  immensity  at  once  reveals  itself.  .  .  .  When  we  ex- 
amine the  details  of  this  historic  shrine,  we  begin  to  realize  the  rich- 
ness of  its  decoration.  In  one  place  are  galleries  resting  on  beautiful 
shafts  of  jasper,  porphyry,  and  alabaster,  supporting  in  their  turn 
arches  that  must  have  once  been  resplendent  in  their  continuous 
coating  of  golden  mosaics.  These  monolithic  columns  were  part  of 
the  spoils  taken  from  pagan  shrines  in  Greece,  Asia  Minor,  and  Syria, 
all  of  which  were  plundered  by  the  Christians  that  they  might  thereby 
render  this  the  richest  sanctuary  in  the  world.  Its  wealth  waa^  there- 
fore, almost  fabulous.  A  thousand  persons  were  employed  in  its 
service.  It  boasted  of  golden  cases  to  contain  the  Gospels,  of  ehalice- 
cloths  embroidered  with  pearls,  of  altars  encrusted  with  jewels,  of 
crucifixes  of  solid  gold,  and  of  doors  of  cedar,  amber,  and  ivoiy.  In 
fact,  it  was  called  '^The  terrestrial  paradise,'  'The  earthly  throne  of 
the  glory  of  God.' "  ^^)  Other  writers,  however,  while  fully  appreci- 
ating the  unexampled  splendor  of  this  church  palace,  have  main- 
tained, and  rightly  so,  that  this  structure  can  hardly  be  said  to  ful- 
fill the  requirements  of  a  Christian  church.  With  all  its  gorgeous- 
ness,  it  has  the  fault  which  must  be  alleged  against  most  churches 


57)  Gradmann,  Op.  cit.,  65. 

58)  Histnire  de  V Architecture,  II:  34;   Lowrie,  158.  ^ 

59)  Fergiisson.  A  Historif  of  Architecture  in  All  Countries,  I.  446. 

60)  Stoddard,  Lectures,  H,  54 — 56. 


THE   BYZAXTIXE   STYLE.  37 

of  the  Byzantine  style:  they  are  not  built  for  the  preaching  of  the 
Gospel. 

The  Church  of  Hagia  Sofia  marked  the  climax  of  the  first  period 
of  the  Byzantine  style.  There  are  other  examples  of  this  golden  age 
of  church  architecture,  which  at  least  deserve  to  be  mentioned.  The 
church  in  Thessalonica  of  the  same  name  as  that  in  the  Oriental 
capital  is  evidently  built  in  imitation  of  that  great  cathedral.  There 
are  some  modifications,  such  as  the  continuation  of  the  narthex  along 
the  sides  of  the  building  in  the  form  of  a  cloister  or  ambulatory. 
Other  churches  that  belong  to  this  period  are  S.  Nicolaus  of  Myra, 
in  Asia  Minor,  and  Hagios  Johannes,  of  Ephesus.  The  ruins  of  the 
latter  now  cover  a  large  area. 

For  several  hundred  years  after  this,  there  were  no  great  works 
of  art  in  the  Byzantine  style  of  architecture.  Then,  however,  a  re- 
juvenation took  place.  There  was  a  second  golden  era  of  church 
building,  chiefly  in  the  Orient.  The  fundamental  characteristics  re- 
mained the  same:  massive  piers  and  wide  arches,  and  pendentives 
with  a  dome  rising  over  them  in  the  main  space,  and  vaulted  spaces 
in  connection  with  it.  Another  characteristic  is  the  including  of  all 
buttress  work  within  the  edifice  by  roofing  such  space  over  and  mak- 
ing it  an  integral  part  of  the  building.  Oriental  ornamentation  was 
adopted  more  and  more  in  the  course  of  time.  The  exterior  was  often 
built  up  in  a  striped  effect  by  using  various  colors  of  brick,  stone,  or 
marble  in  successive  layers.  The  interior  walls  and  vaultings  were 
smooth,  affording  excellent  space  for  wall  mosaics,  marble  decoration, 
or  mural  painting.  The  illumination  was  diminished  in  harmony 
with  the  mysticism  of  the  Oriental  cultus.  There  were  the  first  in- 
dications of  a  tendency  toward  a  conventionalism  which  finally  re- 
sulted in  a  dead  formalism. 

The  Theotokos-Church  of  Thessalonica  embodies  practically  all 
the  characteristics  named  above,  but  still  exhibits  the  normal  type. 
The  Church  of  S.  Elias  has  no  aisles.  There  is  a  Theotokos-Church 
also  in  Constantinople.  Many  other  examples  are  found  on  the  is- 
lands of  the  Aegean  Sea,  on  Mount  Athos,  in  Athens,  Mistra,  and 
throughout  Asia  Minor  before  the  Mohammedan  conquest.  But  the 
most  majestic  church  of  the  second  period  of  the  Byzantine  style  is 
the  Church  of  St.  Mark's,  in  Venice. 

The  history  of  San  Marco  is  very  closely  connected  with  that  of 
the  halcyon  days  of  Venice,  in  the  era  when  this  city  was  practically 
an  Oriental  metropolis.  It  was  in  the  year  828  that  the  relics  of 
St,  Mark  were  brought  from  Alexandria  to  Venice.  As  a  shrine  for 
these  precious  relics  the  first  Church  of  St.  Mark,  probably  a  basilica 
of  the  old  style,  was  erected.  Tt  burned  down  in  97G,  whereupon  a 
first  restoration  was  undertaken.     In  the  last  half  of  the  eleventh 


38 


THE  BYZAXTIXE  STYLE. 


century,  however,  a  new  churcli  palace,  probably  entirely  different  in 
conception  and  execution,  was  erected.  It  was  dedicated  in  the  year 
1094,  but  changes  were  made  in  details  and  ornamentation  for  the 
next  three  hundred  years,  thus  adding  to  the  building  certain  Ro- 
manesque and  Gothic  features. 

The  church  is  an  imposing  structure.     It  is  built  in  the  cruci- 
form plan,  the  inside  dimensions  being  200  feet  east  and  west  by  164 


feet  north  and  south.  The  central  and  western  domes  arc  42  feet  in 
diameter,  the  other  three  only  33  feet.  The  cupolas,  with  the  mag- 
nificent arches  beneath  them,  create  an  imposing  rhythm  of  space, 
form,  and  illumination,  giving  a  mystic  impression  of  sanctity.  The 
splendor  of  the  ornamentation,  especially  the  mosaics  inlaid  with 
gold,  enhances  the  effect  of  magnificence. 

Few  churches  have  evoked  such  volumes  of  praise-  as  St.  Mark's. 
It  may  be  that  the  historic  associations  and  the  picturesque  setting 


THE  BYZANTINE  STYLE. 


39 


contribute  somewhat  to  the  general  effect.  But  this  does  not  change 
the  fact  that  the  excellence  of  its  proportions  and  the  skillful  dispo- 
sition of  its  parts  impress  even  the  unsentimental  art  critic.  It  has 
been  called  an  "unexcelled  creation  of  art."    Poets  have  sung  of  the 


church  that  "the  glory  of  the  Orient"  is  embodied  in  it.  Mrs.  Bell 
writes  of  it :  "St.  Mark's  of  Venice  rivals  S.  Sophia  in  exquisite 
beauty  of  interior  and  excels  it  in  ornate  richness  of  the  exterior."  ^^) 
Stoddard  says,  in  part :     "What  a  facade  is  this !     TTore.    masse<l  in 


61)  Architect  lire.  Chapter  V 


40  THE  BYZANTINE  STYLE. 

serried  ranks,  are  scores  of  variously  colored  marble  columns,  each 
one  a  monolith,  and  all  possessing  an  eventful  history.  Some  are 
from  Ephesus,  others  from  Smyrna,  while  others  still  are  from  Con- 
stantinople, and  more  than  one  even  from  Jerusalem.  On  one,  the 
hand  of  Cleopatra  may  have  rested ;  another  may  have  cast  its  shadow 
on  St.  Paul ;  a  third  may  have  been  looked  upon  by  Jesus.  St.  Mark's 
is  the  treasure-house  of  Venice,  a  place  of  pride  as  well  as  of 
prayer.  ...  It  is  an  impressive  moment  when  one  passes  beneath 
these  gilded  steeds  and  enters  the  interior  of  the  cathedral.  A  twi- 
light gloom  pervades  it,  well  suited  to  its  age  and  the  mysterious 
origin  of  all  it  contains.  The  walls  and  roof  are  so  profusely  covered 
with  mosaics  and  precious  marbles  that  it  is  easy  to  understand  why 
St.  Mark's  has  been  called  the  'Church  of  Gold,'  and  likened  to  a 
cavern  hung  with  stalactites  of  precious  stones.  Some  of  these  orna- 
ments are  of  pagan  origin;  others  have  come  from  Christian  shrines. 
All,  however,  have  had  to  pay  their  contribution  to  St.  Mark's."  ^2) 
But  a  veritable  paean  of  praise  is  Ruskin's  description:  "Between 
those  pillars  there  opens  a  great  light,  and,  in  the  midst  of  it,  as  we 
advance  slowly,  the  vast  tower  of  St.  Mark  seems  to  lift  itself  visibly 
forth  from  the  level  field  of  checkered  stones.  And,  on  each  side,  the 
countless  arches  prolong  themselves  into  ranged  symmetry,  as  if  the 
rugged  and  irregular  houses  that  pressed  together  above  us  in  the 
dark  alley  had  been  struck  into  sudden  obedience  and  lovel,y  order, 
and  all  their  rude  casements  and  broken  walls  had  been  transformed 
into  arches  charged  with  goodly  sculpture,  and  fluted  shafts  of  deli- 
cate stone.  .  .  .  And  well  may  they  fall  back,  for  beyond  those  troops 
of  ordered  arches  there  rises  a  vision  out  of  the  earth,  and  all  the 
great  square  seems  to  have  opened  from  it  in  a  kind  of  awe,  that  we 
may  see  it  far  away ;  —  a  multitude  of  pillars  and  white  domes,  clus- 
tered into  a  long,  low  pyramid  of  colored  light;  a  treasure-heap  it 
seems,  partly  of  gold,  partly  of  opal  and  mother-of-pearl,  hollowed 
beneath  into 'five  great  vaulted  porches,  ceiled  with  fair  mosaic,  and 
beset  with  sculpture  of  alabaster,  clear  as  amber  and  delicate  as 
ivory,  —  sculpture  fantastic  and  involved,  of-  palm-leaves  and  lilies, 
and  grapes  and  pomegranates,  and  birds  clinging  and  fluttering  among 
the  branches,  all  twined  together  into  an  endless  network  of  buds  and 
plumes;  and,  in  the  midst  of  it,  the  solemn  forms  of  angels,  sceptred 
and  robed  to  the  feet,  and  leaning  to  each  other  across  the  gates, 
their  figures  indistinct  among  the  gleaming  of  the  golden  ground 
through  the  leaves  beside  them,  interrupted  and  dim,  like  the  morn- 
ing light  as  it  faded  back  among  the  branches  of  Eden,  when  first  its 
gates  were  angelguarded.  long  ago.     And  around  the  walls   of  the 


62)  Lectures,  I,  319.  322. 


THE  BYZAXTIXE   STYLE.  41 

porches  there  are  set  pillars  of  variegated  stones,  jasper,  and  por- 
phyry, and  deep-green  serpentine  spotted  with  flakes  of  snow,  and 
marbles  that  half  refuse  and  half  yield  to  the  sunshine,  Cleopatra- 
like, 'their  bluest  veins  to  kiss,'  —  the  shadow,  as  it  steals  back  from 
them,  revealing  line  after  line  of  azure  undulation,  as  a  receding  tide 
leaves  the  waved  sand;  their  capitals  rich  with  interwoven  tracer^-, 
rooted  knots  of  herbage,  and  drifting  leaves  of  acanthus  and  vine 
and  mystical  signs,  all  beginning  and  ending  in  the  cross;  and  above 
them,  in  the  broad  archivolts,  a  continuous  change  of  language  and 
of  life  —  angels  and  the  signs  of  heaven  and  the  labors  of  men,  each 
in  its  appointed  season  upon  the  earth;  and  above  these,  another 
range  of  glittering  pinnacles,  mixed  with  white  arches  edged  with 
scarlet  flowers,  —  a  confusion  of  delight,  amidst  which  the  breasts  of 
the  Greek  horses  are  seen  blazing  in  their  breadth  of  golden  strength, 
and  the  St.  Mark's  lion,  lifted  on  a  blue  field  covered  with  stars,  until 
at  last,  as  if  in  ecstasy,  the  crests  of  the  arches  break  into  a  marbl.: 
foam  and  toss  themselves  far  into  the  blue  sky  in  flashes  and  wreaths 
of  sculptured  spray,  as  if  the  breakers  on  the  Lido  shore  had  been 
frost-bound  before  they  fell,  and  the  sea-nymphs  had  inlaid  them 
with  coral  and  amethyst."  ^^)  In  spite  of  this  ecstatic  utterance, 
however,  the  glory  of  St.  Mark's  also  is  not  that  of  an  ideal  Christian 
church  building. 

There  are  other  isolated  instances  of  Byzantine  influence  in  the 
Occident.  A  notable  example  is  the  Cathedral  of  Pisa  with  its  tower. 
This  church  is  not  built  strictly  in  one  style.  It  has  the  basilican 
principle  of  length  and  peristyle  and  the  regular  cruciform  shape, 
yet  its  principal  and  most  conspicuous  feature  is  the  Byzantine  dome. 
It  is  thus  a  conglomeration  of  various  styles  and  ideas.  Ravenna  is 
another  city  which  felt  the  Byzantine  influence  very  strongly.  Li 
Germany,  the  Minster  of  Aachen,  built  by  Charlemagne  as  a  mauso- 
leum chapel  for  himself,  is  based  entirely  upon  Oriental  ideas,  al- 
though he  was  otherwise  an  eclectic.  Its  center  is  an  octagon  with  a 
diameter  of  fifty  feet  and  a  total  height  of  one  hundred.  This  is 
surrounded  by  a  circular  cloister,  two  stories  high,  and  surmounted 
by  a  splendid  dome.  The  design  of  several  small  chapels  in  Germany 
and  Switzerland  has  also  been  traced  back  to  Byzantine  influence. 
With  the  exception  of  these  few  instances,  the  Occident  found  noth- 
ing in  the  Oriental  style  which  really  expressed  the  symbolism  and 
the  requirements  of  its  cultus,  a  fact  which  the  few  sporadic  cases 
cited  above  tend  to  emphasize. 

But  in  the  Orient,  the  Byzantine  style  retained  its  influence, 
although  its  vitality  was  soon  sapped,  leaving  nothing  but  a  con- 


63)  The  Stones  of  Venice,  I,  101—103. 


42  THE  BYZANTINE  STYLE. 

gealed,  dead  formalism.  It  is  this  fact  which  stands  out  so  promi- 
nently in  the  Neo-Byzantine  churches  of  the  Greek  Catholic  Church, 
especially  in  Russia,  although  Armenia  and  the  countries  along  the 
Danube  all  show  the  same  influence.  The  Cathedral  of  Wladimir  is 
a  church  combining  Armenian  and  Romanesque  features  with  the 
Byzantine  type.  Other  instances  are  the  churches  of  Kiev,  Now- 
gorod,  and  Rostow.  In  the  course  of  time,  other  influences  made 
themselves  felt,  especially  from  India,  Persia,  and  Turkestan.  This 
combination  of  tendencies  resulted  in  some  rather  peculiar  construc- 
tions. One  characteristic  is  the  strange,  collar-like  constriction  of 
the  dome  below  the  lantern.  Another  feature  is  the  introduction  of 
many  strange  arches,  elliptical-pointed,  horseshoe-shaped,  inverted 
double,  and  others.  There  is  often  a  strong  resemblance  to  the  pa- 
godas and  mosques  of  India  and  China.  The  ornamentation  shows 
features  of  the  baroque,  and  even  of  the  bizarre.  The  domes  are 
painted  in  the  most  discordant  hues  or  covered  with  gold  and  silver. 
The  towers  for  bells  are  usually  not  integral  parts  of  the  churches. 
In  the  interior,  the  absence  of  proper  illumination  contrasts  strangely 
with  the  gaudy  and  flimsy  ornamentation.  The  entire  architecture 
with  all  its  subsidiary  arts  is  a  striking  symbol  of  the  decadent  church 
with  its  dead  ritualism. 

The  most  lurid  example  of  florid  excrescence  in  this  style  is 
probably  the  Church  of  St.  Basil,  in  Moscow,  built  by  Iwan  the  Ter- 
rible in  the  middle  of  the  sixteenth  century.  This  structure  is  really 
a  conglomeration  of  eighteen  chapels,  agreeing  with  the  number  of 
saints  to  which  it  is  dedicated.  The  design  is  conspicuously  irregu- 
lar, even  the  domes  being  constructed  in  the  most  varying  sizes  and 
shapes.  There  are  various  kinds  of  heterogeneous  cells,  sacristies, 
and  towers.  Dormers,  bays,  arches,  turrets,  and  spires  are  afiixed  in 
the  most  unlooked-for  places.  Small  wonder  that  is  has  been  called 
by  Kugler  "a  miracle  of  tastelessness".^^)  Of  course  one  may  find, 
even  in  such  a  structure,  a  certain  sensuous,  barbaric  beauty,  as  Stod- 
dard writes:  *'The  architecture  of  this  marvelous  structure  is  inco- 
herent and  amazing,  yet,  in  a  certain  sense,  beautiful.  One  would, 
however,  never  suspect  St.  Basil's  to  be  a  Christian  church,  if  it  were 
not  for  the  gilded  crosses  that  adorn  its  towers.  The  especial  glory 
of  the  building  is  its  coloring,  the  effect  of  which  can  hardly  be  ex- 
aggerated; for  it  is  painted  in  all  the  colors  of  the  rainbow.  Red, 
orange,  yellow,  green,  blue,  violet,  gold,  and  silver  are  blended  in  one 
amazing  mass,  like  a  fantastic  castle  made  of  prisms.  From  the  roof 
rise  eleven  towers,  apparently  bound  together  like  an  immense  bouquet 
of  architectural  flowers.     Each  cupola  is  different.     One  represents 


64)  Gradinann,  0/>.  c'/7..  144. 


THE   ROMANESQLE   STYLE.  43 

an  artichoke,  another  a  pineapple,  a  third  a  melon,  while  others  sug- 
gest the  turbans  of  Oriental  giants."  ^5) 

Fortunately,  not  all  Kussian  churches  show  this  extreme  type. 
The  Cathedral  of  the  Assumption,  in  Moscow,  and  the  Church  of  the 
Annunciation,  of  the  same  city,  are  far  more  unassuming,  although 
they  also  have  the  typical  defects  of  the  Eusso-Byzantine  architec- 
ture. The  Church  of  the  Savior,  in  Moscow,  built  in  the  first  quar- 
ter of  the  last  century,  hafe  the  bulbous  domes,  but  otherwise  it  ex- 
hibits nothing  of  the  extremely  fanciful  and  grotesque  found  in  so 
many  Russian  churches.  It  is  built  in  the  form  of  a  Greek  cross,  of 
cream-colored  stone.  The  interior  is  decorated  with  barbaric  magni- 
ficence. Variegated  marble,  jasper,  porphyry,  malachite,  and  alabas- 
ter, all  cut  and  polished,  occur  in  a  great  variety  of  forms.  Altogether, 
this  cathedral,  together  with  the  Renaissance  structures  of  Petrograd, 
must  be  considered  one  of  the  finest  structures  under  the  jurisdiction 
of  the  Greek  Church. 

There  are  isolated  cases  of  Byzantine  churches  in  America,  but 
such  churches  are,  in  mbst  instances,  bviilt  by  congregations  of  the 
Greek  Orthodox  faith.  Occasionally  one  sees  a  Roman  Catholic 
church  with  Byzantine  features,  but  the  exceptions  are  so  rare  as  to 
confirm  the  rule. 


CHAPTER  4. 
The   Romanesque  Style. 

The  names  which  the  historian  chooses  to  designate  certain  peri- 
ods are  not  always  so  expressive  as  those  which  we  meet  with  in  the 
history  of  architecture.  The  name  Byzantine  is  eminently  fitting, 
since  its  birth-place  was  the  old  Oriental  capital,  Byzantium  on  the 
Bosporus,  and  its  most  excellent  memorial  is  situated  there.  And 
the  name  Romanesque  is  narrow  enough  to  include  the  Occidental 
buildings  of  the  ninth  to  the  thirteenth  centuries,  and  sufficiently 
encompassing  to  embrace  all  structures  whose  basic  principle  was  the 
round  arch  and  certain  other  fundamental  characteristics.  There  is 
the  same  relation  between  the  architecture  of  these  centuries  and  the 
early  Christian,  including  the  Cardlingian  Renaissance,  as  between 
the  Romance  languages  and  the  Latin  tongue.  The  name  Roman- 
esque, therefore,  does  not  designate  a  new  art,  but  it  is  a  continua- 
tion, with  creative  additions,  of  the  early  Occidental  Christian  art  of 
building.  And  just  as  the  Latin  'language  was  obliged  to  undergo 
many  variations  and  transformations  in  the  various  countries  until 
finally  new  typical  languages  were  the  result :  the  Italian,  the  Spanish, 


65)  Lectures,  VI,  :^20.  321. 


44  THE  ROMANESQUE  STYLE. 

the  French  with  its  many  dialects,  so  also  the  principle  of  the  ancient 
Christian  basilica  was  used  as  a  model  by  the  Germanic  peoples,  es- 
pecially in  France  and  Germany,  varied  and  transformed  to  suit  tho 
symbolism  of  their  cultus,  and  transmitted  to  other  countries,  wher- 
ever their  influence  reached.  It  is  for  this  reason  that  many  scholars 
make  subdivisions  for  the  Romanesque  or  round-arched  style.  We 
read  of  Lombard,  Rhenish,  Romance,  Norman,  Saxon,  Tuscan,  Sici- 
lian Romanesque  architecture.  The  Tuscan  Romanesque  style  is 
that  found  in  Tuscany,  the  ancient  Etruria,  especially  in  the  struc- 
tures of  Florence  and  Pisa.  That  the  Byzantine  influence  was  very 
strong  here,  was  stated  in  the  preceding  chapter.  The  decorative 
element  also  prevailed,  and  the  detached  tower  became  the  campanile, 
so  characteristic  of  this  section  of  Italy.  Li  the  Lombard  style, 
Byzantine  traditions  are  still  more  strongly  marked.  Venice  and 
Ravenna  were  centers  of  art,  and  their  example  proved  an  impelling 
power.  The  entire  valley  of  the  Po  and  the  Adige,  as  well  as  the 
Venetian  lowland  show  evidence  of  this  influence.  It  may  be  due  to 
this  fact  that  Moore  makes  the  criticism:  "An  imperfect  imitation 
of  a  more  logical  system,  the  principles  of  which  they  did  not  under- 
stand." 6^)  The  Saxon  or  Anglo-Saxon  style  is  found  in  ancient 
churches  in  England,  built  in  the  tenth  and  the  flrst  half  of  the 
eleventh  century.  Its  chief  characteristics,  as  given  by  Mrs.  Bell, 
are  great  height  compared  with  length  and  breadth  of  the  building, 
massive  square  towers,  unadorned  angular  or  semicircular  towers, 
stunted  columns  with  plain  capitals,  deeply  recessed  windows,  mas- 
sive walls  without  internal  decoration,  no  aisles  or  transepts.^^)  The 
Xorman  style,  as  the  name  implies,  had  its  inception  in  northern 
France.  It  employed  massive  piers,  but  little  vaulting;  the  vaulted 
side-aisles  were  low;  the  doorways  were  richly  adorned  with  carved 
moldings.  This  style  was  transplanted  to  England  with  William  the 
Conquerer  and  there  absorbed  some  ideas  of  the  Anglo-Saxon  struc- 
tures. The  characteristics  of  the  Anglo-Norman  style  are  stated  by 
Mrs.  Bell:  cruciform  plan,  great  length  in  comparison  with  breadth 
of  the  nave,  columns  of  greater  girth  and  height,  massive  walls, 
beautiful  clerestories,  finely  decorated  doorways,  strong  external  but- 
tresses, twin  western  towers.^^)  A  strange  excrescence  of  the  Norman 
style  is  that  which  was  developed  in  Sicily  and  southern  Italy  during 
Xorman  rule.  It  seems  that  the  Normans  intended  to  introduce 
their  art  of  building,  but  later  yielded  to  local  influences.  The  result 
is  a  strange  mixture  of  Byzantine,  Arabian,  and  Norman-French 
forms.     Greek  mosaics.   Oriental  cupolas,   Italian   roof-trusses   with 


66)  The  Mrdiccal  Church  Architecture  of  England,  Chapter  I. 

67)  Architecture,  Chapter  V]I.  68)  Architecture,  Chapter  VII. 


THE  BOMANESQUE  STYLE.  45 

Arabian  coloring  and  Moorish  stalactite  vaulting,  —  all  these  are 
found  in  the  same  church  building.^s)  The  German  Eomanesque 
style,  of  which  the  Lombard  is  really  only  a  subdivision,  is  found 
especially  in  the  region  of  the  Khine.  It  exhibits  the  basilica  plan 
with  vaulted  construction,  barrel  vaulting  being  employed  very  gen- 
erally; if  there  is  a  clerestory,  flying  buttresses  are  usually  present; 
in  later  times,  six-part  ribbed  vaulting  is  found.  It  is  the  Rhenish 
style  which  reached  the  full  freedom  of  consistent,  mature,  and  con- 
eluding  development.™)  Since  all  these  types,  which  we  have  now 
briefly  surveyed,  are  merely  adaptations  or  excrescences  of  the  fmi- 
damental  style,  we  may  include  them  all  in  the  same  chapter,  especi- 
ally in  the  present  brief  summary,  and  venture  a  more  detailed  dis- 
cussion of  their  common  fundamental  principles  and  characteristics. 

At  the  beginning  of  this  period  the  usual  form  of  the  churches 
was  that  of  the  ancient  rectangular  basilica,  Avith  the  added  apse. 
In  small  churches,  this  form  was  usually  retained  without  aisle  divi- 
sion. In  larger  churches,  there  was,  almost  invariably,  a  division 
into  a  large  central  aisle,  called  the  nave,  and  commonly  twOj  some- 
times four,  side-aisles.  Later,  the  cruciform  plan  was  very  generally 
adopted  in  place  of  the  simple,  hall-like  structure.  The  reason  for 
the  introduction  of  the  cross-nave  or  transept  was  partly  an  historical 
one,  since  it  corresponded  to  the  alae  of  the  Roman  house.  Very 
likely,  though,  the  symbolic  significance  had  more  influence  than  his- 
torical or  artistic  considerations.  Other  changes  in  the  groundplan, 
which  were  found  in  larger  churches,  were  the  adding  of  apses,  either 
on  the  east  walls,  or  on  the  north  and  south  walls  of  the  transepts, 
thus  forming  chapels  of  these  arms.  A  second  transept,  narrower 
and  shorter  than  the  first,  symbolized  the  superscription  on  the  cross. 
Extensions  of  the  cross-nave  formed  an  ambulatory  around  the  sanc- 
tuary- with  the  high-altar.  In  some  instances,  especially  when  a 
church  had  two  patron  saints,  a  second 'large  apse  was  constructed  at 
the  west  end  of  the  church.  The  main  entrances  were  then  on  the 
north  and  south,  in  the  western  part  of  the  church. 

In  the  earlier  churches,  the  walls  were  very  heavy,  because  they 
had  to  carry  the  weight  of  the  flat  roofs.  The  windows  were  small 
and  usually  widened  obliquely  toward  the  outside  to  catch  as  much 
light  as  possible.  The  heavy  columns  which  marked  the  division  of 
the  aisles  carriefl  the  galleries  over  the  aisles  and  also  aided  in  bear- 
ing the  weight  of  the  roof.  The  column  of  the  Romanesque  period 
was  round,  with  circular  extensions  at  the  base,  and  rested  upon  a 
square  plinth.    The  shaft  of  the  column  was  generally  smooth,  though 


fiO)  Ciradmann,  nrschichte  <ler  ehrisUichen  Kttnst,  229.  230, 
70)   Schult/.e,   Ihi.s  rniiifirlixrhe  Kirchriif/ehaeufJe,  9. 


46  THE   KOMANliSQUE   STYLE. 

decorations  iu  low  relief  are  occasionally  found.  The  capitals  were 
either  plain  cubes  or  such  with  convex  or  concave,  edges.  It  was  an 
easy  matter  to  decorate  tliese  cubes  with  leaves  or  geometric  figures. 
Much  more  common  than  the  graceful  column  was  the  ponderous 
pillar,  usually  four-square  and  plain,  though  molding  or  beading  ap- 
pears on  the  edges  in  some  cases.  The  columns  or  pillars  carried  the 
round  arches  which  supported  the  clerestory  walls  and  gave  a  pon- 
derous effect  to  the  whole  interior.  The  great  expanse  of  wall  space 
between  the  small  windows  was  commonly  covered  either  with  mosaic 
decorations,  geometrical  designs,  or  pictorial  representations,  or  with 
mural  paintings,  some  of  which  were  artistic  productions  of  great 
merit. 

The  arrangement  of  the  interior  was  not  made  subject  to  many 
changes.  The  (high-)  altar  retained  its  position  just  inside  the  apse. 
The  place  of  the  chancel  (cancelli)  is  taken  by  a  stone  structure 
which  is  used  for  the  reading  of  the  Gospel  lesson.  This  lectorium 
(Lettner)  was  often  so  high  that  it  obstructed  the  view  of  the  altar. 
For  that  reason,  a  second  altar  was  placed  in  the  nave  which  was 
known  as  the  lay  altar.  Where  the  number  of  chapels  in  the  tran- 
septs and  elsewhere  was  large,  there  were  altars  for  each  chapel. 
There  were  balconies  over  the  aisles,  sometimes  also  over  the  entrance 
(used  as  oratorium  for  nuns).  The  towers,  like  the  baptisteries,  were 
originally  detached  structures.  But  gradually  the  incongruity  of  this 
arrangement  seems  to  have  been  felt.  The  final  result  was  that  the 
tower  was  made  an  organic,  integral  part  of  the  church  building.  In 
most  cases,  at  least  two  towers  were  constructed,  fl.anking  the  vesti- 
bule or  porch,  and  containing  the  stairways  to  the  balconies.  They 
were  usually  square  below,  with  an  octagonal  spire.  If  there  was  a 
large  central  tower  over  the  main  entrance  in  the  west,  additional 
smaller  towers  were  usually  erected  at  the  corners.  In  unpretentious 
churches,  a  large  tower  was  erected  over  the  crossing  of  the  nave  and 
transept.  It  was  usually  octagonal  in  form,  with  many  windows  to 
aid  in  illuminating  the  main  auditorium.  In  a  few  instances,  there 
were  small  towers  even  at  the  north  and  south  end  of  the  transepts, 
thus  resulting  in  a  total  of  seven  for  the  whole  church  (Limburg). 
The  division  of  stories  was  indicated  on  the  towers  by  horizontal 
water  tables  or  a  similar  device.  The  windows  are  grouped  in  twos 
or  threes,  surmounted  by  arches  and  flanked  by  columns.  In  this 
way,  the  blvintness  of  the  earlier  forms  was  agreeably  enlivened. 

The  most  important  change  from  the  old  basilican  church  which 
distinguishes  the  Eomanesque  style  is  in  the  construction  of  the  roof. 
'  There  were  so  many  objections  to  the  flat  roof,  not  only  of  a  sym- 
bolical, but  also  of  a  practical  nature,  that  a  substitute  was  eagerly 


THE  ROMANESQUE   STYLE.  47 

seized  upon  in  the  form  of  vaulting.  This  vaulting  could  be  carried 
out  entirely  in  stone  or  brick,  thus  reducing  or  eliminating  the  dan- 
ger of  fire,  and  it  took  away  the  depressing  effect  of  a  flat'  ceiling. 
The  vaulting  at  first  was  the  so-called  barrel  vaulting,  with  a  semi- 
circular or  stilted  arch  effect.  This  served  to  enliven  the  building  to 
a  considerable  extent.  Since,  however,  the  position  of  the  cohnnns 
or  pillars  in  the  church  really  divided  the  auditorium  into  quadratic 
spaces,  it  was  soon  found  practicable  to  construct  round  arches  diagO' 
nally  over  these  spaces,  thus  producing  intersecting  or  cross  vaulting. 
This  added  much  to  the  beauty  of  the  ceiling,  taking  away  the  dead 
line  of  the  square  effect.  But  this  vaulting  of  the  ceiling,  in  turn, 
necessitated  a  different  wall  construction,  since  there  had  to  be  some 
limit  to  the  thickness  of  the  walls.  The  thrust  of  the  cross-vaulting, 
also,  was  not  distributed  evenly  along  the  walls.  Therefore  the  more 
graceful  colunui  gradually  was  abandoned  for  the  ponderous  pillar, 
and  since  the  pillar  often  obstructed  the  view  and  shut  out  the  light, 
it  was  placed  halfway  into  the  wall  and  became  a  pilaster,  sometimes 
with  only  one  half-column,  sometimes  with  three  or  more,  capable  of 
upholding  a  very  great  weight.  In  addition  to  this,  since  "an  arch 
never  sleeps,"  the  thrust  of  the  cross-vaulting  was  effectually  held 
back  by  buttresses,  set  against  the  pilasters  on  the  outside  of 
the  church. 

Another  advance  was  the  beautifying  of  the  exterior  of  the 
churches,  which  in  early  times  had  been  almost  severely  plain.  Suc- 
cessful efforts  were  made  to  break  up  and  diversify  the  fagades  and 
side-wall  surfaces  with  appropriate  ornaments.  The  frieze  along  the 
gables  and  under  the  eaves  was  not  only  decorated  with  various  forms ' 
of  molding,  but  also  broken  up  into  small  arches.  The  doorways, 
portals,  and  window  openings  were  also  beautified  with  sculpture 
work.  A  fine  effect  was  gained  by  having  columns  bearing  graceful 
arches  gradually  recede  into  the  wall.  A  notable  example  is  the  so- 
called  "Golden  Portal"  of  Freiberg.  In  some  cases,  the  windows 
were  grouped  in  series  of  three,  with  the  center  one  higher  than  the 
others,  thus  producing  the  effect  of  height.  It  also  became  the  cus- 
tom to  place  a  large  circular  window  over  the  main  portal.  This 
window  was  divided  into  leaves  and  received  the  appropriate  desig- 
nation *'rose  window." 

A  peculiar  remnant  of  earlier  days  was  the  crypt  below  the  sanc- 
tuary. This  was  really  an  underground  chapel,  with  vaulting,  col- 
imins  and  pillars,  apse  and  altar.  Originally,  the  relics  of  the  saint 
after  whom  the  church  was  named  had  been  deposited  here.  The 
custom  of  building  crypts  was  gradually  discontinued,  as  the  relics 
were  deposited  under  the  altar. 


48  THE  ROMANESQUE   STYLE. 

There  are,  fortunately,  quite  a  number  of  churches  of  this  style 
still  standing  in  all  the  countries  where  this  type  of  architecture 
flourished.  A  brief  description  of  a  nvunber  of  these  may  serve  to 
accentuate  the  specific  Eomanesque  characteristics  embodied  in  their 
construction.  That  part  of  France  which  is  south  of  the  Loire  really 
had  its  own  development  of  the  vaulted  basilican  type,  but  there  are 
instances  throughout  the  country  and  in  Belgium.  St.  Martin  of 
Tours  (997 — 1014)  was  the  most  pretentious  church  of  its  time  on 
the  western  side  of  the  Alps.  Of  this  old  abbey  church,  which  was 
especially  noteworthy  on  account  of  its  beautiful  choir,  now  only  two 
towers  remain.  The  Church  of  St.  Remy,  of  Rheims,  was  modeled 
after  this  church.  It  had  a  five-aisled  nave  and  a  three-aisled  tran- 
sept, showing  bold  and  majestic  outlines.  Other  exceptional  church 
edifices  were  those  of  Avignon,  Xotre  Dame  de  Doms,  St.  Sernin  of 
Toulouse,  St.  Benigne  of  Dijon,  the  church  at  Conques,  and  the 
Cathedral  of  Toumay.  In  spite  of  the  opposition  made  by  the  order 
of  Cluny,  the  development  of  the  apse  into  elaborate  proportions  con- 
tinued. It  was  at  this  time  that  the  cloistered  ambulatories  with  the 
wreath  of  chapels  about  the  apse  were  introduced.  This  form  per- 
sisted even  through  the  Gothic  period.  In  the  course  of  time,  the 
churches  embodied  and  reflected  all  the  artistic  aspirations  of  their 
communities.  The  cathedrals  of  Angouleme,  Angers,  and  Poitiers 
are  masterpieces,  the  beauty  of  their  fagades  being  fully  equaled  by 
the  disposition  and  ornamentation  of  the  interior.  In  the  case  of  the 
Cathedral  of  Puy,  Byzantine  influence  is  again  apparent  in  the  domed 
vaulting.  It  was  built  during  the  time  of  the  crusades  and,  in  all  its 
parts,  breathes  the  spirit  of  its  time.  A  church  which  seems  to  have 
prepared  the  way  for  the  transition  was  the  Minster  of  Cluny  (1088 
— 1131).  Its  size  was  that  of  the  basilica  of  St.  Peter  in  Rome.  Itsr* 
nave  was  five-aisled,  and  there  was  a  double  transept  and  an  ambu- 
latory. The  nave  had  barrel  vaulting,  the  transepts  cross-vaulting. 
The  pilasters  and  pillars  were  constructed  with  the  greatest  technical 
skill,  to  counteract  the  thrust  of  the  arches. 

The  Romanesque  churches  of  Normandy  were  constructed  under 
the  influence  of  Benedictine  ideas  from  Dijon  and  Cluny.  William 
of  Ivrea,  the  builder  of  St.  Benigne  of  Dijon,  was  called  by  the  Duke 
of  Normandy  to  take  charge  of  the  monasteries  in  that  countr.v. 
And  therefore  we  find  in  all  the  larger  churches  the  same  design : 
cruciform  plan  with  vestibule,  towers  in  the  west  and  over  the  cross- 
vaulting  of  the  transept,  threefold  choir  and  secondary  apses  at  the 
ends  of  the  transepts.  But  the  Normans  impressed  upon  their 
churches  their  own  individuality.  Both  the  principles  of  sTiip-build-' 
ing  and  of  fortress-building  were  adapted  in  their  cathedrals.     The 


THE  BOMANESQUE   STYLE.  49 

iiave  is  very  long  and  narrow,  and  the  polygonal  apse  almost  com- 
pletes the  illusion  of  the  bow  of  a  ship.  The  towers  are  four-square 
and  massive.  The  addition  of  buttresses  enhances  the  effect  of  rugged 
strength.  There  are  several  rows  of  windows,  since  there  is  often  n 
double  gallery.  An  early  example  is  Mont-Saint-Michel.  Caen  be- 
came a  great  center  of  church  architecture  at  the  end  of  the  eleventh 
century.  It  was  here  that  "William  the  Conqueror,  in  10G6,  began  to 
build  St.  Stephen's,  whose  nave  was  originally  covered  with  a  square 
roof,  but  later  received  vaulting.  St.  Nicholas,  of  the  same  city,  still 
retains  the  pyramidal  covering  of  the  apse.  In  St.  Trinitc  a  further 
development  is  anticipated,  and  St.  Etienne  was  fitted  with  vaulting 
in  the  twelfth  century,  sexpartite  vaulting  being  used  in  the  nave 
and  barrel  vaulting  over  the  aisles. 

The  Xorman  ideas  were  elaborated  still  further  in  England,  in 
the  so-called  Anglo-Xorman  style,  which  was  referred  to  above.  An 
early  example  was  Worth  Church,  in  Sussex.  It  was  here  that  the 
addition  of  the  second  transept  became  almost  the  normal  form,  after 
the  beginning  had  once  been  made  at  Canterbury  (1096).  The  tran- 
septs were  broken  up  into  chapels.  Transepts  and  apses  are  square; 
vaulting  is  rare,  except  in  crypts;  the  round  arch  is  a  dominating 
feature.  The  principle  of  height  is  sacrificed  entirely  for  that  of 
length.  Finally,  the  long  center  aisle  makes  the  impression  of  a 
cloister,  especiallj'  since  the  heavy  pillars  obstruct  the  view  into  the 
side  aisles.  The  illumination  of  the  interior  is  poor.  There  were 
some  changes  from  the  Norman  type,  mainly  in  this  that  the  western 
towers  were  omitted  and  only  that  over  the  transept  retained.  The 
fagade  was  often  built  up  in  perpendicular  niches  which  served  to 
enliven  the  whole  building  to  some  extent.  Most  of  the  larger  Eng- 
lish churches  have  been  reconstructed  in  the  Gothic  style.  But  the 
abbey  churches  of  Tewkesbury  and  Waltham  are  monuments  of  this 
type,  and  especially  the  Cathedral  of  Durham.  It  is  here  that  we 
find  the  flying  buttress  employed  to  rest  against  the  wall  of  the  clere- 
story and  counteract  the  thrust  of  the  main  roof.  Other  examples  are 
the  transept  of  the  Cathedral  of  Ely,  as  well  as  parts  of  the  cathe- 
drals of  Peterborough,  Chichester,  and  Rochester,  and  the  ruins  of 
Kelso,  in  Scotland. 

So  far  as  Sicily  (and  southern  Italy)  is  concerned,  the  charac- 
teristics of  the  sjoecial  Romanesque  type  found  here  have  been  re- 
ferred to  above.  Its  chief  monximents  are  the  palace  chapel  of 
Palermo,  whose  decoration  especially  reminds  one  of  Bagdad,  the 
Monreale  Minster,  which  is  just  as  extravagantly  decorated  with 
Saracenic  ornamentation,  and  the  cathedrals  of  Palermo  and  Cefalu. 
In  the  "other  Sicily,"  the  mainland  of  southern  Italy,  the  churches 
of  Salerno,  Amalfi,  and  Ravello  show  the  Norman  characteristics, 

Kretzmann,  Christian  Art.  4 


50  THE   EOMAXESQL  K   STVLK. 

though  the  influence  of  other  styles  is  also  evident.  On  the  Adriatic 
coast,  this  influence  is  hardly  noticeable,  except  perhaps  in  the  rose 
window.  The  domination  of  Thessalonica  and  liavenna  was  too 
strong.  But  in  northern  Italy,  the  Eomanesque  style,  influenced,  in 
part,  by  German  types  and  builders,  is  plainly  marked.  Among  the 
churches  which  are  worthy  of  study  are  S.  Zeno,  of  Florence,  S.  Mi- 
niato,  of  Florence,  S.  Babila,  in  Milan,  and  the  Church  of  Vercelli. 
Still  more  interesting,  however,  as  an  expression  of  the  type,  is  S. 
Ambrogio,  of  Milan.  Here  we  find  cross-vaulting  in  all  the  parts, 
with  pilasters  and  pillars  fashioned  accordingly.  Instead  of  employ- 
ing flying  buttresses,  the  builders  elevated  the  side  aisles  to  the  height 
of  the  nave,  thus  producing  the  hall  church,  after  the  model  of  the 
crypts.  The  thrust  of  the  main  vaulting  is  thus  held  by  the  aisle 
construction,  and  the  thrust  of  the  aisle  vaulting  is  distributed  to 
various  strong  buttresses.  We  have  here  the  original  of  the  German 
"Hallenkirche,"  which  was  followed  in  most  of  the  Lombard  churches. 
The  fact  that  the  clerestory  windows  were  now  eliminated  interfered 
with  the  illumination  of  the  interior,  but  this  difficulty  was  later 
solved  in  the  Church  of  St.  Michael  of  Pavia. 

The  Eomanesque  churches  of  Germany  show  a  regular,  rhythmic, 
consistent  development  of  the  fundamental  ideas  of  the  style.  Here 
the  eleventh  century  was  truly  the  heroic  era,  for  its  art  was  simple, 
strict,  and  majestic.  The  steady,  progress  of  architecture  is  esjjeci- 
ally  noteworthy  along  the  Rhine.  The  distinctive  characteristic  of 
the  German  Romanesque  is  the  cube  capital.  It  was  first  used  in  the 
basilica  of  St.  Michael,  at  Hildesheim.  The  dome  of  Treves  presents 
a  strange  anomaly:  the  continuation  of  the  ancient  Christian  basi- 
lica, with  the  choir,  as  well  as  the  main  entrance,  in  the  west.  The 
capitol  church  of  Cologne  has  vaulted  aisles  and  ambulatories.  The 
origin  of  its  clover-leaf  apse  has  not  yet  been  explained.  Hirsau, 
with  its  St.  Aurelius  Church  modeled  after  the  Cathedral  of  Cluny, 
exerted  considerable  influence,  churches  of  Goslar,  Hildesheim,  Schaff- 
hausen,  and  elsewhere  receiving  their  design  and  practical  detailed 
execution  from  this  church  of  the  Order  of  Cluny. 

In  the  second  half  of  the  eleventh  century  further  progress  was 
made,  with  a  partial  disregai'd  of  the  model  of  Cluny.  The  Cathedral 
of  Speier  was  reconstructed  twice,  due  to  floods  and  faults  in  the 
vaulting.  In  its  final  form,  it  presented  a  three-aisled  vaulted  basi- 
lica with  single  transeijt  and  semicircular  apse.  The  Cathedral  of 
Mainz  was  modeled  after  that  of  Speier,  with  minor  changes,  such 
as  the  omission  of  the  ornamental  half -column  in  the  case  of  pilasters 
that  received  no  thrust.  The  third  cathedral  belonging  to  this  group 
is  that  of  Worms.     The  round  towers  of  this  church  flanking  both 


THK  |{()m.vm:s(H"k  stylk, 


51 


52 


THE   ROMANESQUE   STYLE, 


the  eastern  and  the  western  choir  and  the  octagonal  towers  over  the 
cross-vaulting  of  the  transept  and  over  the  eastern  apse  are  especially 
noteworthy.  The  main  entrances  were  on  the  north  and  south  sides. 
A  new  departure  is  evident  in  the  abbey  church  of  Maria  Laach.  The 
quadratic  sections  of  the  plan  were  here  changed  to  rectangular, 
which,  with  the  round  arch,  presented  some  difficulties,  since  the  arch 
lacked  the  proper  support.  In  all  other  respects,  this  church  shows 
the  same  ponderous  solidity  which  is  characteristic  of  all  Romanesque 
buildings.     However,  the  grouping  of  the  windows  under  trefoliated 


MAGDEBURG  CATHEDRAL. 

arches  in  the  main  tower  has  a  rather  charmi:rr  effect.  This  church 
has  six  towers,  while  that  of  Bamberg  may  uoast  of  only  four,  that* 
of  Bonn  exhibits  five,  and  Limburg  even  seven. 

The  latter  church,  incidentally,  is  notable  for  another  reason. 
At  the  beginning  of  the  thirteenth  century,  an  unrest,  a  peculiar  dis- 
satisfaction with  the  straight  lines  and  the  closed  curves  of  the  Ro- 
manesque, became  ajiparent.  A  seeking  after  greater  freedom  of 
construction  manifested  itself.  Certain  elements  were  introduced 
which  led  away  from  the  old  style  and  gave  promise  of  something 
better  and  more  ideal  than  anything  heretofore  attempted.  The 
Cathedral  ( f  Limburg  is  an  example  of  this  transition.    We  find  in 


THE  GOTHIC  STYLE.  53 

it  the  elements  of  the  Romanesque  style  as  well  as  those  of  a  type 
which  in  its  very  lines  symbolizes  the  breaking  away  from  the  fetters 
of  an  oppressing  condition.  In  the  Dome  of  Limburg,  the  round 
arches  of  the  windows  are  very  agreeably  offset  by  the  pointed  arches 
on  the  inside  wall  and  over  the  aisles.  It  is  somewhat  strange  that 
the  incongruity  and  lack  of  harmony  and  rhythm  in  the  combination 
of  two  different  arches  did  not  suggest  itself  to  the  builders.  How- 
ever, the  art  which  the  church  architects  felt  more  than  definite  rules 
could  fix,  finally  found  its  expression  in  a  new  style,  which  was  fully 
introduced  at  the  end  of  the  thirteenth  century. 


CHAPTER   5. 
The  Gothic  Style. 

The  thirteenth  centuiy  was  marked  by  the  beginning  of  the  great 
luirest,  social,  political,  and  religious,  which  culminated  in  the  Re- 
naissance and  the  Reformation.  It  was  the  century  of  the  Magna 
Charta  in  England,  it  was  a  period  presaging  the  humanistic  revival, 
it  was  an  era  of  growth  for  the  guilds.  The  social  consciousness  was 
aroused  and  an  increasing  activity  in  every  line  of  social  endeavor 
was  made  possible  by  the  growing  wealth  of  the  people,  both  in  town 
and  country.  This  activity  was  manifested  especially  in  the  realm 
of  religion.  Not  even  the  costly  and  devastating  wars  of  this  and 
the  following  centuries  could  materially  interfere  with  the  aspira- 
tions nor  dampen  the  ardor  of  the  enthusiastic  builders  of  churches 
and  cathedrals.  The  craze  for  building  (Bauwut)  which  had  charac- 
terized the  preceding  period  was  rather  intensified  than  abated.  "It 
was  a  great  era  of  strife  and  endeavor,  when  people,  dissatisfied  with 
past  results,  made  use  of  the  most  varied  forms,  until  they  had  found 
in  the  Gothic  style  that  new  principle  which  now  was  carried  out  in 
all  its  consequences  to  the  final  exhaustion."  '^^)  ''The  struggle  be- 
tween the  old  and  new  methods  of  building  very  clearly  reflected  that 
of  the  people  for  greater  freedom  of  thought  and  action  in  the  coun- 
tries in  which  it  took  place.  The  keynote  of  both  was  an  aspiration 
after  nobler  things,  and,  in  architectui'e.  a  yearning  for  religious  ex- 
pression, typified  by  the  pointing  upwards  of  the  spires  and  pinnacles 
of  churches  and  cathedrals,  coincided  with  the  craving  of  builders 
for  increased  lightness  and  grace  of  structure."  ^2) 

It  has  been  stated  that  the  Gothic  style  is  the  result  of  the  effort 
to  find  the  best  manner  of  cross-vaulting,  to  have  the  weight  of  the 
roof  rest  more  vertically,  thus  eliminating  the  hea\'y  walls  and  making 


71)  ^feurer,  Der  KtrcJieiihaii.  63.  65. 

72)  :Mrs.  Bell,  Architecture,  60.  61. 


54  THK  GOTHIC  STYLE. 

them  serve  simply  for  the  purpose  of  enclosing  the  sijace  of  the  church 
building.  Hamlin  defines  it  as  "that  system  of  structural  design  and 
decoration  which  grew  up  out  of  the  effort  to  combine,  in  one  har- 
monious and  organic  conception,  the  basilican  plan  with  a  complete 
and  systematic  construction  of  groined  vaulting."  '^3)  It  is  thus  in 
its  fundamental  principle  a  matter  of  structure,  and  not  merely  of 
ornamental  detail.  In  accordance  with  this  basic  idea,  the  barrel 
vault  and  the  round  arch  were  replaced  by  the  pointed  arch.  But  the 
conscious  or  miconscious  striving  typified  in  the  Gothic  style  meant 
more  than  a  mere  physical  or  material  advantage.  Even  as  the  col- 
umns and  pillars  in  the  old  forms  of  architecture  were  reproductions 
of  the  mature  tree-trunk,  thus  the  lines  of  force  in  the  pointed  arches 
were  the  reproduction  of  the  living,  growing  plants  in  nature.  Wher- 
ever there  is  life,  growth,  strength  in  nature,  the  lines  of  force  are 
found.  And  thus  the  lines  of  force  in  the  Gothic  style  represent  life, 
growth,  strength  of  the  best  type.  "The  Gothic,"  says  Price,  ''is 
dually  a  structural  and  a  decorative  architecture.  Its  development 
was  as  natural  and  as  consistent  as  the  growth  of  a  tree,  rising  up, 
putting  forth  branches,  and  these,  in  turn,  putting  forth  leaves.  .  .  . 
It  is  the  sense  of  upward  motion,  reaching  often  to  the  height  of  the 
sublime,  which  has  made  Gothic  architecture  essentially  the  archi- 
tecture of  the  Church,  rendering,  as  it  does,  a  remarkable  expression 
of  spiritual  nobility  in  architectural  terms."  '^*) 

The  Gothic  style  is  a  sequel  and  outgrowth  of  the  Romanesque, 
but  the  pointed  arch  changed  structure  and  symbolism  entirely.  It 
introduced  the  concentration  of  strains  upon  isolated  points  of  sup- 
port by  groined  instead  of  barrel  vaults.  It  made  the  wall  a  mere 
enclosure  of  the  church  space.  It  transmitted  thrusts  by  the  fla- 
grantly flaunted  device  of  the  flying  buttress.  It  took  up  the  matter 
of  ribbed  vaulting,  carrying  it  to  the  very  limit  of  graceful  endeavor. 
It  lifted  up  highly-pitched  roofs  and  gables  to  heights  never  dreamed 
of  in  earlier  times  and  crowned  the  entire  edifice  with  slender  spires 
and  pinnacles,  growing  ever  more  decorative  and  ever  pointing  up- 
ward in  joyful  ecstasy,  until  the  whole  building  seems  more  than  a 
mere  sermon,  —  rather  a  splendid  symphony  in  stone.  Small  wonder 
that  most  students  of  architecture  have  become  enraptured  with  this 
great  achievement  of  the  Middle  Ages.  "Gothic  cathedrals,"  says 
Hamlin,  "express  perfectly  the  idea  of  vastness,  mystery,  and  com- 
plexity." "°)  The  Gothic  is  the  "expression  of  inward  faith  till  it  at- 
tains bold  enthusiasm,  ever  pointing  heavenward,"  is  the  statement 
of  Rosengarten.     "The  Gothic  church  in  its  classical  perfection  is 


73)  History  of  Architecture,  190. 

74)  The  Practical  Book  of  Architecture,  47 — 49. 

75)  History  of  Architecture,  Chapter  XV. 


THE  GOTHIC  STYLE.  00 

the  most  ideal  aud  finished  creation  of  church  architecture  and,  at 
the  same  time,  the  most  perfect  expression  of  the  medieval  religious 
feeling."  '6)  "The  Gothic  edifice,  in  spite  of  all  its  splendor,  has  the 
character  of  the  meek  and  humble  in  the  Christian  meaning  of  the 
term."  7")  "The  Gothic  style  more  correctly  ought  to  be  called  the 
Christian  style,  because  it  gives  the  most  pregnant  expression  to  the 
fundamental  ideas  of  Christianity.  The  Gothic  style,  through  the 
adoption  of  the  pointed  arch  and  the  buttress,  has  easily  solved  all 
the  most  difficult  problems  of  architecture.  In  its  interior  as  well  as 
in  the  exterior  architecture  the  Gothic  dome  makes  the  impression  of 
the  supernatural."  '*)  "The  Gothic  style  is  the  most  Christian  and 
the  most  beautiful  of  all,"  says  Dr.  G.  Palm.  "In  the  Gothic,  the 
highest  and  most  adequate  Christian  form  of  church  building  has 
been  found,"  writes  another  prominent  critic.  "The  essence  of  the 
Gothic  style  and  its  imposing  effect  is  to  be  found  in  the  vertical 
lines.  The  sursum  corda  is,  as  it  were,  embodied  in  this  style.  .  .  . 
All  narrow  and  depressing  effects  have  been  taken  away.  The  hign 
pilasters  and  pointed  arches  bowing  to  one  another  attract  the  eye 
upward  and  lead  the  gaze  uninterruptedly  to  the  highest  part."  '^) 
A  more  detailed  examination  of  the  characteristics  will  show  how 
well  these  laudatory  statements  are  founded  and  borne  out  by  the 
construction  in  the  Gothic  style. 

So  far  as  the  groundplan  is  concerned,  there  was  little  difference 
between  the  Romanesque  and  the  Gothic  churches.  The  shape  of  the 
nave  was  rectangular,  usually  broken  or  divided  into  three  aisles  (in 
some  cases  five).  The  transept,  which  gave  the  church  its  cruciform 
shape,  was  not  emphasized  so  strongly  as  in  the  Romanesque,  being 
sometimes  merely  indicated.  In  smaller  churches,  the  transept  was 
often  omitted  entirely.  Instead  of  that,  the  custom  of  continuing 
the  side-aisles  around  the  apse  in  the  form  of  an  ambulatory,  from 
which  small  chapels  radiated,  became  more  general.  Since  the  build- 
ing of  the  crypt  was  now  no  longer  practised,  the  elevation  of  the 
choir  was  not  so  pronomiced.  A  mere  balustrade  was,  in  many  cases, 
the  only  indication  of  the  segregation  of  the  lower  clergy  and  the 
people.  On  the  other  hand,  the  dividing  wall  of  the  lectorium  grew 
into  a  most  elaborate  form,  symbolical  of  the  great  gulf  between  the 
higher  clergy  and  the  laity.  The  apse  no  longer  had  a  semicircular 
form,  but  was  commonly  built  on  the  octagonal  or  polygonal  plan. 
The  vestibule  was  an  integral  part  of  the  church  building. 

Vaulted  construction  was  the  rule  in  the  Gothic  style,  the  only 
exceptions   being   the   English   parish   churches,   which   were   rarely 


76)  Schultze.  Op.  cit.,  17.  77)  Schuaase.  in  Schultze.  18. 

78)  Gaulke,  Religion  mid  Kuiist,  22.        79)  Der  Kirchenhau,  68.  71. 


56  THE  GOTHIC  STYLE. 

vaulted.  The  quadratic  sections  of  the  church  were  replaced  by  rect- 
angles in  the  center  aisles.  The  pointed  arches  of  the  vaulting  showed 
plainly  the  lines  of  force  whose  arc  was  considerably  greater  than  the 
radius  of  the  circle  of  height.  The  cross-vaulting  rested  on  pilasters, 
which  consisted  of  four,  eight,  or  even  twelve  half -columns  set  in  the 
wall  and  braced  on  the  outside  by  heavy  buttresses.  If  the  church 
had  three  or  five  aisles,  the  inner  pilasters,  which  rose  higher  for  each 
successive  story,  were  supported  from  the  outside  walls  below  by 
means  of  flying  buttresses,  which  in  themselves  were  graceful  reali- 
zations of  lines  of  force.  The  side  aisles  were  thus,  in  most  instan- 
ces, considerably  lower  than  the  center  aisles,  thus  showing  a  gradual 
ascent  to  the  highest  ridge  in  the  center  of  the  cluirch.  A  peculiarity 
found  especially  in  German  churches  was  the  building  of  all  aisles 
in  the  same  height,  though  the  side-aisles  were  much  narrower  than 
the  center  aisle.  This  form  of  hall  church  lacked  the  climactic  factor, 
although  the  interior  presented  wonderful  vistas  of  height  and  extent. 

The  greatest  advance  in  the  Gothic  style  was  in  the  vaulting. 
At  first  the  comparatively  simple  quadripartite  or  cross-vaulting  was 
common.  Soon,  however,  the  more  difficult  sexpartite  vaulting  be- 
came customary.  And,  the  problems  of  construction  having  been 
solved,  architectural  embellishment  suggested  fanciful  and  even  fan- 
tastic forms.  The  continental  builders  were  finally  satisfied  with  web 
and  net  vaulting,  but  the  English  architects  went  even  farther,  in- 
venting the  so-called  fan  vaulting. 

Since  the  entire  weight  of  the  roof  and  the  vaulting  now  rested 
on  the  pilasters  through  the  medium  of  the  pointed-arch  vaulting,  it 
was  no  longer  necessary  to  make  the  walls  so  thick  and  heavy  as  in 
the  previous  styles.  They  therefore  became  mere  enclosing  screens. 
Instead  of  the  small  windows  of  former  times,  which  had  scarcejy 
been  more  than  loop-holes,  large  expanses  of  window-surfaces  could 
now  be  inserted.  These  were  constructed  in  the  pointed-arch  desigJi, 
broken  by  mullions  and  tracery  which  ranged  from  the  simply  beauti- 
ful to  the  fancifully  extravagant.  The  windows  were  glazed  with 
stained  glass  in  figures  and  geometrical  designs.  So  distinctive  did 
this  feature  of  the  large  and  beautifully  colored  windows  become  that 
one  author  has  suggested  the  name  "painted-glass  style"  as  being 
more  appropriate  than  "pointed-arch  style"  or  "Gothic  style."  ^^) 
The  rose  window  of  the  western  wall  was  also  a  feature  of  -the  Gothic 
style,  more  so  even  than  in  the  Romanesque,  from  which  it  differed 
by  the  application  of  the  lines  of  force.  The  grouping  of  three  nar- 
row, high  windows  in  series  of  threes  or  more  in  a  single  opening 
under  one  great  arch  proved  to  be  a  m()st  effective  device. 


80)  Fergiisson,  A  History  of  Architecture  in  All  Countries.  Book  III. 


THE  GOTHIC  STYLE,  07 

More  than  ever  before,  the  decorating  of  the  fagade  and  side 
walls  was  emphasized.  The  immense  portals  with  their  gradual  re- 
cessing, adorned  with  beautiful  sculpture  work,  rising  into  graceful 
square  pinnacles  surmounted  by  pyramids;  the  wide  expanse  of  the 
wall,  enlivened  with  turrets  and  exquisite  tracery,  and  set  in  its  cen- 
ter with  the  gleaming  rose  window,  all  these  combined  in  producing 
a  feeling  of  awe  and  reverence  in  the  beholder.  The  towers  were  de- 
tached in  only  a  few  isolated  instances,  forming  usually  integral  part^ 
of  the  churches.  In  Germany  and  northern  France,  the  towers  con- 
tinued upward  in  the  graceful  beauty  of  the  spires  with  their  open 
tesselated  structure.  Some  churches  had  but  one  gradated  tower  over 
the  main  entrance,  but  the  larger  ones  on  the  continent  had  a  tower 
on  either  side  of  the  front  portal.  But  there  were  deviations  from 
this  rule,  single  towers  over  the  transept  crossing  being  the  rule  in 
England.  But  we  also  find  towers  at  either  side  near  the  east  end  of 
the  church,  or  flanking  either  the  eastern  or  the  lateral  apses,  or  a 
single  one  at  either  the  northern  or  southern  end  of  the  transejjt. 

The  fine  arts  were  made  subsidiary  and  ancillary  in  the  best  sense 
of  the  terms,  uniting  with  architecture  in  forming  one  beautiful  har- 
monious whole.  Xot  only  were  the  windows  in  their  harmony  and 
color  excellent  works  of  art,  but  the  floor  and  wall  mosaics  recall  the 
beauty  of  the  early  Christian  art,  while  the  mural  paintings,  in  the 
contrast  of  their  color  schemes  were  often  of  a  very  high  order  and 
served  well  as  an  introduction  to  the  perfect  productions  of  the  next 
period.  And  not  only  did  the  portals  and  window  openings  receive  the 
attention  of  the  sculptors,  but  the  tympanum,  the  spandrils,  the 
ridges,  the  spires,  the  turrets,  and  pinnacles,  —  all  were  decorated  with 
innumerable  ornaments  modeled  after  the  leaves  and  flowers  of  the 
surrounding  country.  Each  niche  was  provided  with  a  statue,  and 
the  very  waterspouts  were  rescued  from  the  commonplace,  being 
formed  in  figures  of  animals,  gargoyles,  demons,  and  all  the  fantastic 
creatures  of  the  medieval  mind. 

Such,  then,  are  some  of  the  characteristics  and  features  of  the 
Gothic  style.  If  we  strip  the  discussion  of  all  non-essentials  and  re- 
duce it  once  more  to  its  simplest  terms,  the  one  fact  stands  out  that 
the  essential  purpose  of  the  Gothic  stjde  was  so  to  construct  the 
pointed  vaulting  and  so  to  support  the  superstructure  by  buttresses 
as  to  render  the  roof  independent  of  the  walls  and  also,  by  the  use  of 
cross-vaulting,  of  the  quadrangular  floor-space.  In  the  Gothic  style, 
the  full  development  of  height  was  reached. 

One  can  hardly  understand  the  full  significance  of  the  Gothic 
st>-le,  however,  without  tracing  its  history  in  a  more  careful  outline, 
as  to  beginning  and  growth,  full  realization,   and  gradual  decline-. 


5S 


THE  GOTHIC  STYLE. 


The  transition  style,  called  by  some  writers  the  late  Komanesque,  by 
others  the  preparatory  Gothic,  has  its  most  characteristic  monuments 
in  the  first  half  of  the  thirteenth  century,  although  some  of  its 
churches  were  built  in  the  twelfth  century.    Not  only  does  the  Dome 


CATHEDRAL  AT   FREIBURG. 

of  Limburg  on  the  Lahn  exhibit  the  peculiarities  which  presaged  a 
new  style,  but  also  the  Minster  of  St.  Denis  and  the  Cathedral  of 
Laon,  not  to  mention  a  great  many  smaller  churches  of  northern 
France.  But  the  full  vitality,  originality,  and  diversity  of  the  new 
style  did  not  appear  until  about  the  second  quarter  of  the  thirteenth 


THE  GOTHIC  STYLE. 


59 


century,  the  Early  Gothic  usually  beinp:  placed  between  1225  and  1300. 
The  forms  and  outlines  are  still  heavy,  but  well-proportioned  The 
horizontal  lines  are  relatively  more  prominent  than  the  vertical. 
Simple  ribbed  vaulting  is  customary;  simplicity  and  vigor  of  design 
and  detail  is  noticeable  at  every  turn ;  the  windows  are  narrow  and 
gaining  in  height.  It  is  in  the  Middle  Gothic,  from  1300 — 1375,  that 
we  find  the  Gothic  principle  consistently  applied  and  vigorously  car- 
ried out.  The  horizontal  lines  disappeared,  graceful  vertical  lines  are 
prominent;  there  is  a  free  imitation  of  nature,  a  refreshing  freedom, 
rhythm,  and  movement,  as  well  as  an  evident  unity.  The  hall-church 
is  intro<kiced  more  generally,  and  both  its  advantages  and  disadvan- 
tages are  emphasized.  The  vaults  are  more  perfect;  greater  slender- 
ness  and  gracefulness  appears;  the  decoration  becomes  much  richer; 
the  size  of  the  windows  is  increasing.  The  transept  in  its  full  length 
is  rare;  the  pinnacles  are  not  applied  so  regularly.     Tlie  capitals  of 


THE  DEVELOPMENT  OF  FAN  VAULTING. 


the  half -columns  are  omitted  more  and  more,  permitting  the  lines  to 
run  in  an  uninterrupted  arch  to  the  highest  point  of  the  ceiling. 
Lightness  and  fluidit.y  appear,  being  exaggerated  sometimes  to  an 
elegant  mannerism.  The  perfection  is  often  so  obvious  and  consistent 
as  to  become  monotonous.  The  combination  of  vigor  and  beauty  of 
this  period  has  seldom  been  equaled  and  never  excelled.  But  after 
this  culmination,  a  very  gradual  decline  set  in,  which  is  represented 
in  the  monuments  of  the  Late  Gothic,  from  1375 — 1525.  The  Decora- 
ted Style,  as  the  Middle  Gothic  is  often  called,  was  followed  by  the 
Perpendicular  Florid  in  England,  and  by  the  Flamboyant  on  the 
Continent,  especially  in  northern  France.  The  principles  of  vigorous 
construction  upon  which  the  Gothic  style  was  built  were  relegated  to 
the  background,  while  the  decoration  became  the  center  of  interest. 
Star-,  net-,  and  fan-vaulting  was  the  order  of  the  day;  the  double 
inverted  arch  appears  more  frequentl.y.  One  cannot  escape  the  im- 
pression that  design  and  execution  are,  as  a  rule,  entirely  too  orna- 
mental, too  decorative,  too  florid.  The  profuseness  and  minuteness 
of  decorative  detail  is  increased  to  mere  ambitious  arbitrariness  on 


60  THE  GOTHIC  STYLE. 

the  part  of  the  artists;  flamboyant  tracery  arrests  attention  by  its 
very  pattern.  The  effort  to  hide  the  entire  construction  resulted  in 
such  abstract  productions  that  some  of  them  might  be  compared  to 
magnificent  bubbles  suspended  in  mid-air,  doomed  to  collapse  at  the 
first  breath  of  air.  In  many  cases,  the  ornamentation  of  the  Baroque 
period  can  hardly  be  said  to  have  been  more  absurd.  A  peculiar 
sequel  of  the  Gothic  style  in  England  was  the  so-called  Tudor  style, 
whose  characteristic  is  the  bent  or  Tudor  arch.  This  style  Avas  tran- 
sitional between  the  last  Gothic  and  the  introduction  of  the  Renais- 
sance. It  represents  the  breaking-down  of  pointed  vaulting  with  its 
beautiful  symbolism  of  life  and  growth,  a  process  which  had  been 
inaugurated  by  the  fan-vaulting.  While  a  certain  amount  of  beauti- 
ful dignity  must  be  conceded  to  this  style  in  church  construction,  it 
can  never  compare  in  challenging  vitality  with  the  most  representa- 
tive pointed-arch  designs,  especially  on  the  Continent.  And  ostenta- 
tion, such  as  marked  by  the  Perpendicular  and  the  Tudor  styles, 
always  marks  a  declining  art. 

It  is  a  difficult  undertaking  to  furnish  an  impartial  estimate  of 
the  various  monuments  of  the  Gothic  style,  and  yet  even  a  summary 
can  make  no  claim  as  to  completeness  without  an  enumeration  of  the 
most  representative  structures  on  the  Continent  and  in  England. 
The  claim  of  France,  or,  more  exactly,  of  the  Isle  de  France,  that  it 
served  as  the  cradle  of  the  Gothic  style,  has  rarely  been  disputed, 
although  the  ideas  which  were  finally  incorporated  in  its  principles 
had  found  their  expression  long  before  and  in  various  places.  The 
classic  building  that  marks  the  opening  of  this  great  epoch  is  Xotre 
Dame  de  Paris,  on  the  island  of  the  Seine  which  was  once  the  strong- 
hold of  the  Parisii.  It  was  built,  with  intermissions,  from  1163 — 1235, 
and  boasts  of  magnificent  proportions.  The  western  fagade  was  the 
last  to  be  built,  the  towers  were  carried  up  to  their  present  height, 
but  no  spires  added.  Although  the  unity  of  the  original  five-aisled 
plan  has  suffered  somewhat  on  account  of  restorations  and  changes, 
yet  the  simple  beauty  of  the  structure  appeals  to  every  visitor.  "This 
old  cathedral  is  a  noble  specimen  of  Gothic  architecture.  The  long- 
drawn  aisles,  the  fluted  columns,  the  delicately  pointed  arches,  the 
lofty  intersections  of  the  nave  and  transepts,  the  splendid  windows 
of  stained  glass,  through  which  the  sunlight  falls,  apparently  with 
the  ruby  and  golden  tints  of  autumnal  leaves,  —  all  these  appeal  to 
us  with  a  mysterious  charm  that  makes  us  speak  in  softer  tones."  ^i) 
But  while  Xotre  Dame  is  still  comparatively  conservative,  the  buoy- 
ancy and  effervescence  of  the  French  temperament  was  soon  expressed 


81)  Stoddard,  Lectures,  V,  70. 


CATHEDRAL   OF   RHEIMS. 


THE  GOTUIC  STYLE. 


63 


in  increasing  floridness  of  construction  and  overabundance  of  orna- 
mentation. The  Cathedral  of  Chartres  (1195 — 1260)  in  its  every  line 
expresses  daring  and  pride,  mixed  with  sternness.  The  apse  received 
an  addition  of  tliree  cells  or  niches,  nave  and  transept  were  three- 


A.MIENS   CATHEDRAL. 

aisled  and  of  the  same  width.  Altogether,  it  was  an  original  and 
epochal  building.  Xo  less  stately  and  beautiful  was  the  Cathedral  of 
Rheims  (1211 — 1295),  whose  interest  was  enhanced  by  its  historical 
associations,  but  which  has  now  shared  the  misfortune  of  so  many 
works  of  art,  having  been  made  a  victim,  of  the  great  war.  This 
church  belongs  to  the  period  of  the  best  development  in  France. 
Everything  is  designed  to  aid  the  idea  of  length  and  growth.     The 


THE  GOTHIC  STYLE,  65 

eye  is  lost  in  its  vast  depths,  where  the  echoing  chords  of  the  mighty 
organ  die  away  in  mystery.  The  outstanding  feature  of  the  building 
was  its  elegance  and  symmetry,  combined  with  vigor  and  loveliness. 
Behind  the  picturesque  gables  of  the  portals  the  sculptured  beauty  of 
the  fagade,  surmounted  by  the  glory  of  the  spires,  rose  to  heaven  "like 
a  fervent  prayer."  The  Cathedral  of  Amiens  (1220 — 1288),  in  spite 
of  all  the  splendor  of  its  parts,  marks  the  turning-point  of  Gothic  art 
in  France.  It  is  521  feet  long,  and  its  vault  rises  in  a  tapering  arch 
to  a  height  of  140  feet.  But  the  excellent  proportions  of  its  construc- 
tion are  made  secondary  to  the  elaborate  decoration  of  the  arches  and 
tympanum,  with  scriptural  reliefs,  figures  of  saints,  apostles,  mar- 
tyrs, and  angels.  One  cannot  get  rid  of  the  impression  that  deliber- 
ate ostentation  has  been  practised  throughout.  Aside  from  this 
criticism,  "the  Gothic  idea  of  an  organic  skeleton  without  walls,  sup- 
porting stone  vaulting,  is  embodied  on  a  vast  scale,  in  utmost  perfec- 
tion, both  structural  and  artistic."  ^2)  Other  churches  of  France  that 
deserve  mention  in  this  connection  are  the  Cathedral  of  Laon,  for  the 
early  period,  S.  Etienne  of  Beauvais,  and  S.  Denis,  near  Paris.  In 
the  Netherlands,  the  Cathedral  of  Toumay  has  parts  built  in  the 
Gothic  style,  in  Belgium  S.  Martin  of  Ypres  and  the  Cathedral  of 
Brussels.  In  general,  the  Romanesque  features  of  width  and  mas- 
siveness  are  never  entirely  absent  in  these  countries. 

In  England,  national  characteristics  and  racial  development 
combined  in  impressing  upon  the  Gothic  style  a  peculiar  dignified 
and  challenging  stateliness,  without  the  softening  features  of  freedom 
and  grace.  "In  beauty  of  detail  and  elegance  of  proportion  the  Eng- 
lish cathedrals  generally  surpass  their  Continental  rivals."  ^)  "The 
English  were  the  first  to  grasp  the  decorative  side  of  the  Gothic  style, 
which  they  also  developed  independently.  But  the  early  English 
structures  also  permit  one  to  estimate,  especially  as  to  the  erection  of 
the  walls,  how  much  the  early  French  Gothic  was  dependent  upon 
Norman  architecture."  ^)  Among  the  early  structures  which  exhibit 
the  features  of  successive  periods  are  the  Cathedral  of  Canterbury, 
that  of  Lincoln,  and  that  of  Salisbury.  Although  Gothic  features 
preponderate,  yet  the  other  characteristics  are  strong  enough  to  stamp 
their  peculiarity  upon  the  buildings.  Next  in  order  we  have  the 
Minster  of  Beverley,  the  Cathedral  of  Wells,  and  parts  of  the  cathe- 
drals of  Rochester,  Lincoln,  Peterborough,  and  Ely.  In  all  these 
churches,  the  length  of  the  choir  becomes  abnormally  great,  terminat- 
ing invariably  in  a  straight  wall.  In  many  cases  the  vestibule  is 
built  up  so  high  as  to  hide  the  west  wall  of  the  church  entirely.    As 


82)  Moore,  The  Medieval  Church  Architecture  of  England,  Chapter  X. 

83)  Fergusson,  Op.  cit.,  IT,  335.  84)  Gradmann,  Op.  cit.,  332. 
Kretzmann,  Christian  Art.  5 


66 


THE  GOTHIC  STYLE. 


the  develoi>ment  of  the  Gothic  style  progressed,  the  towers  often  re- 
ceived the  crowning  beauty  of  spires,  as  in  the  cathedrals  of  Norwich, 
Chichester,  and  Salisbury.  But  the  most  magnificent  examples  of 
the  Decorated  style  are  found  in  the  cathedrals  of  Exeter  (1280 — 
1370),  Litchfield  (1296—1420),  York  (1291—1338),  Ely,  and  Wells. 
The  Cathedral  of  Exeter  presents  a  distant  likeness  to  the  Minster  of 
Strassburg.  The  vertical  lines  are  prominent,  but  fan-vaulting  has 
already  been  adopted.  The  Cathedral  of  Litchfield  is  notable  for  its 
extreme  length  in  proportion  to  its  height.     But  the  decoration  of  the 


WESTMINSTER   ABBEY. 

interior  still  preserves  the  upward  tendency.  The  Cathedral  of  York 
is  considered  by  many  the  best  exponent  of  the  Gothic  style  in  Eng- 
land. Magnificent  stateliness  is  expressed  in  almost  every  line  of  the 
building.  The  high  slender  aisles  and  the  consistent  vertical  struc- 
ture strike  the  true  Gothic  note.  The  fagade  is  the  most  beautiful  in 
England,  although  the  enormous  windows  seem  out  of  proportion. 
Very  few  people  visiting  England  neglect  to  see  Westminster  Abbey, 
a  church  which  is  fairly  representative  of  Gothic  architecture  in 
England.  Aside  from  its  historical  associations,  this  noble  structure 
is  worth  a  visit  on  account  of  its  dignified  beauty.  "After  the  bare- 
ness of  St.  Paul's,  it  is  with  genuine  delight  that  we  walk  through  the 
pillared  aisles  of  this  old  Gothic  pile,  whose  pointed  arches,  fluted 


THE  GOTHIC  STYLE.  67 

columns,  and  immense  rose  windows,  which  fill  the  temple  with  a 
softened  light  and  bring  a  flush  of  color  to  the  time-stained  walls, 
are  all  in  harmony  with  the  inspiring  thoughts  suggested  by  the  hal- 
lowed shrine."  ^5)  The  most  beautiful  description  of  Westminster 
Abbey,  from  a  layman's  point  of  view,  is  that  by  Irving  in  his  Sketch 
Book.  Unfortunately,  the  Perpendicular  style  with  its  attempt  at 
expressing  the  full  idea  of  height  was  all  too  soon  superseded  by  the 
decline  with  its  adoption  of  the  Tudor  style,  which  is  reminiscent  of 
secular  arcliitecture.  This  feature  is  presaged  in  the  great  window 
of  St.  George's  Chapel  at  Windsor,  and  was  developed  very  strongly 
in  many  of  the  parish  churches  throughout  England.  With  all  their 
quaint  and  appropriate  beauty,  these  churches  never  rise  to  the  full 
expression  of  soaring  freedom,  which  transcends  all  human  misery 
and  earthly  sorrow  and  finds  solace  and  power  in  direct  communion 
with  God.  Altogether,  the  idea  of  height  was  never  fully  developed 
in  England.  Houses  of  prayer  and  houses  of  worship  their  stately 
churches  may  be,  but  they  are  not  appropriate  for  preaching,  nor  can 
the  worshiper  feel,  in  the  very  surroundings  of  the  vast  piles  of 
masonry,  the  sense  of  untrammeled  freedom  which  rises  above  time 
and  place  to  commune,  in  sacrificial  worship,  with  the  God  of  his 
salvation  Himself.  Another  feature  which  almost  all  English  churches 
exhibit,  is  the  great  similarity  to  castles.  The  lightness  and  dainti- 
ness of  construction,  in  the  general  aspect,  is  absent,  and  the  grim 
dignity  of  the  great  churches,  with  their  parapets  rather  resembling 
battlements,  does  not  elicit  the  loving  confidence  of  the  beholder. 
^Nevertheless,  much  may  be  learned  from  the  decorative  details  of  the 
interiors,  especially  as  to  art  windows,  furniture,  and  vestments. 

The  case- of  Italy  is  most  remarkable,  so  far  as  the  influence  of 
the  Gothic  style  is  concerned.  This  country  never  was  good  soil  for 
the  development  of  a  style  essentially  northern,  which  combined 
strength  with  freedom  and  delicacy.  The  ultramontane  spirit  does 
not  agree  with  the  principles  of  the  Gothic  style.  "The  Italians  have 
never  grasped  the  fundamental  trait  of  the  architectural  style,  whose 
nickname  'Gothic'  is  derived  from  them.  For  them  it  was  an  affec- 
tation. As  remarkable  as  their  architectural  achievements  in  the 
Gothic  period  are,  they  still  move  in  the  direction  of  the  'fine  art  of 
building,'  the  Renaissance,  a  movement  which  had  its  inception  in 
the  Romanesque  period  and  is  only  for  the  time  being  deflected  by 
the  Gothic."  86)  "Gothic  never  took  root  in  Italy."  87)  "The  Italian 
Gothic  weakens  the  vertical  principle,  turns  back  to  the  horizontal 
idea  of  the  Romanesque  structures,  delights  in  wide  spaces,  in  large 
wall-spaces  filled  with  mural  paintings,   in   splendid  facades,   in   a 


85)  Stoddard,  Lectures,  IX.  321.  86)  Gradmann,  348. 

87)  Mrs.  Bell,  Architecture,  83. 


68 


THE  GOTHIC  STYLE. 


luxury  of  marble,  a  forest  of  statues,  —  in  short,  the  construction 
becomes  secondary  to  the  decoration.  .  .  .  With  what  right  this  [the 
Gothic]  style  has  been  claimed  as  the  specifically  Roman  Catholic 
style,  is  hard  to  understand;  with  its  ideal  trait  it  is  really  opposed 
to  Roman  Catholicism,  and  it  is  surely  not  a  matter  of  chance  that  it 
never  really  became  'at  home'  in  Italy,  that  German  builders  were 
prominently  interested  in  most  Gothic  buildings  of  the  southern 
countries,  and  that  the  popes  gave  to  the  Gothic  style,  which  was 
indeed   strongly  declining,    the   death-blow  when  they    erected   St. 


CATHEDRAL   OF   MILAN. 

Peter's."  ^)  These  statements  are  borne  out  by  the  fact  that  there 
are  really  very  few  pure  Gothic  structures  in  Italy.  Santa  Croce  in 
Florence  represents  an  early  effort.  Its  lines  and  ornamentation  are 
extremely  simple  and  yet  very  effective.  The  same  may  be  said  of 
La  Certosa,  of  Pavia.  A  much  more  pretentious  structure  is  the 
Cathedral  of  Siena,  whose  alternate  layers  of  white  and  black  marble 
have  done  much  to  spread  its  fame.  The  Cathedral  of  Orvieto  (1310 
— 1330)  still  shows  Romanesque  influence.  A  feature  of  this  church 
is  its  fagade  with  sculpture  work  in  high  relief  by  Giovanni.  "Four 
broad  piers  separate  the  portals  and  are  covered  with  a  series  of  re- 


88)  Meurer,  Der  Kirchenbau,  78.  66. 


THE  GOTHIC  STYLE.  69 

lief s  representing  a  vast  Christian  poem  in  four  scenes :  Genesis ;  the 
Tree  of  Jesse,  with  a  choir  of  the  Prophets  of  the  Redemption;  the 
Life  of  Christ;  the  Last  Judgment.  This  epitome  of  the  world  from 
the  Creation  is  given  in  a  charming  poetic  and  at  times  dramatic 
style.  The  scene  of  the  Last  Judgment  is  particularly  grand,  and 
the  Creation  scenes  the  most  exquisitely  beautiful.  There  is  nothing 
like  it  even  in  France.  It  is  the  incarnation  of  a  poet's  dream."  89) 
The  Cathedral  of  Florence,  in  a  way,  serves  as  a  foil  for  the  wonder- 
ful dome,  although  its  fagade,  finished  only  some  thirty  years  ago,  is 
very  striking  in  its  dignified  beauty,  as  is  also  the  Campanile.  The 
best  example  of  Gothic  art  in  Italy  is  the  Cathedral  of  Milan,  which 
was  begun  in  1386.  Although  the  full  idea  of  height  is  not  realized, 
the  Gothic  principle  is  otherwise  splendidly  maintained.  And  the 
ornamentation  is  such  as  to  surpass  anything  of  the  same  class.  It 
has  been  called  "a.  mountain  of  marble,  with  a  forest  of  pinnacles, 
inhabited  by  an  army  of  statues,  splendid  by  day  and  fairy-like  by 
moonlight." 

Spain  received  its  stimulus  in  Gothic  art  from  France,  but  it  has 
never  reached  the  artistic  heights  which  the  French  builders  attained 
in  their  greatest  monuments.  The  churches  which  are  commonly 
mentioned  are  Santiago  di  Campostella,  the  Dome  of  Barcelona,  and 
the  cathedrals  of  Salamanca,  Leon,  and  Toledo.  But  the  Cathedral 
of  Burgos,  designed  after  that  of  Paris,  is  really  notable,  although 
the  low  pitch  of  the  roof  detracts  somewhat  from  the  impression  of 
the  ensemble,  and  the  pilasters  make  the  impression  of  extreme  heavi- 
ness. "The  great  object  of  attraction  in  Burgos ...  is  its  cathedral 
of  white  marble  —  unquestionably  one  of  the  noblest  specimens  of 
Gothic  architecture  in  the  world.  Its  pointed  towers  rise  like  slender 
pyramids  into  the  blue  air  to  the  height  of  three  hundred  feet,  and 
are  so  exquisitely  cut  in  perforated  stone  that  by  night  the  stars 
gleam  through  the  chiseled  tracery  as  through  the  trees.  Its  splendid 
central  tower  resembles  a  grand  tiara,  adorned  with  scores  of  pin- 
nacles and  statues  and  turrets  of  wonderful  lightness.  This  elaborate 
carving  and  wealth  of  decoration  reminded  us  of  the  Milan  Cathe- 
dral, and  we  could  hardly  wonder  at  Philip  IPs  declaration  that  parts 
of  it  seemed  the  work  of  angels  rather  than  of  men."  ^^)  The  Cathe- 
dral of  Sevilla  (1403 — 1506)  is  considered  the  Spanish  national  type. 
It  is  an  immense  rectangular  building,  surrounded  by  chapels,  sur- 
mounted by  a  cupola  over  the  cross-vaulting  of  the  transept. 

The  idea  of  the  Gothic  style  took  root  in  Germany  almost  as  soon 
as  in  France.  But  its  development  was  along  much  more  conservative 
lines.      Here   the    Gothic   principle,    the    stately    beauty    and    quiet 


89)  Ruoff,  Volume  Library,  435.  90)  Stoddard.  Lectures.  V.  261. 


70 


THE  GOTHIC  STYLE. 


grandeur,  the  lightness  and  yet  the  strength  of  construction,  the  idea 
of  growth  and  height,'  was  most  thoroughly  appreciated  and  most 
consistently  and  successfully  carried  out.  Thus  Germany  became 
the  second  home  of  the  Gothic  style.  It  was  here  that  its  final  de- 
velopment took  place,  after  the  French  soil  had  been  exhausted.  A 
feature  of  the  German  plans  is  the  comparatively  simple  construction 
of  the  choir,  in  which  they  differ  materially  from  the  French  and 
especially  from  the  English  cathedrals.  Another  feature  is  this  that 
even  the  larger  churches  of  a  diocese  bear  the  stamp  of  the  parish 
church.     The  sharp  division  between  the  laity  and  the  clergy  in  the 


CATHEDRAL   OP   SEVILLA. 

church  building  disappears  gradually.  One  of  the  early  examples  is 
the  Liebfrauenkirche  of  Treves  (1227 — 1243).  The  builder  evidently 
received  many  of  his  idpas  from  Rheims.  He  also  managed  to  give 
to  the  plan  the  characteristics  of  the  central  type  of  church.  The 
Cathedral  of  Strassburg  has  Romanesque  characteristics  in  the  tran- 
sept, while  the  other  parts  are  markedly  Gothic  in  design  and  execu- 
tion. Notre  Dame  of  Paris  served  as  a  model  for  the  fagade.  Only 
the  northern  tower  has  been  completed  with  its  spire.  The  most  con- 
spicuous part  of  the  Minster  of  Freiburg  is  the  apse.  The  later 
parts  of  the  building  are  constructed  after  the  model  of  Strassburg. 
But  of  all  the  German  churches,  the  Cathedral  of  Cologne  represents 
the  highest  pinnacle  reached  by  Gothic  art  in  the  North.  It  was  be- 
gun in  1248,  after  the  model  of  Amiens,  and  building  operations 
were  continued  with  intermissions  till  1516.    In  the  last  century  the 


TJIJ-:  CiOTJIlC  STYLK 


CATHEDRAL,   STRASSBURG. 


'J'2  THE  GOTHIC  STYLE. 

building  was  finally  completed  according  to  the  original  sketches. 
Unity  and  absolute  mathematical  precision  is  expressed  in  every  line 
'  of  the  building.  The  main  aisle  is  three  times  as  high  as  it  is  wide, 
two  and  one-half  times  as  high  as  the  side-aisles.  The  very  perfec- 
tion of  the  parts  has  almost  a  monotonous  effect.  Fergusson  writes 
that  it  is  "certainly  one  of  the  noblest  temples  ever  erected  by  man 
in  honor  of  his  Creator.  .  .  Notwithstanding  its  defects,  we  see  in 
the  completed  design  a  really  beautiful  and  noble  building."  9i)  One 
can  very  well  understand  the  rapturous  description  which  has  been 
given :  "At  present  it  has  a  glory  and  a  majesty  that  lift  it  heaven- 
ward above  all  other  churches  in  the  world  and  make  of  it  a  vast 
stone  arch,  bridging  the  stream  of  time,  down  which  the  intervening 
years  have  swept  on  to  eternity.  It  is  impossible  to  gaze  on  either 
the  exterior  or  interior  of  the  stupendous  edifice  without  feeling  well- 
nigh  crushed  by  an  overpowering  realization  of  the  sublime.  The 
spires  reach  the  almost  unexampled  height  of  five  hundred  and  twelve 
feet,  which  is  just  equal  to  the  entire  length  of  the  cathedral;  and 
the  height  of  the  gable  in  the  transept  exactly  corresponds  to  the 
cathedral's  width.  It  is,  therefore,  the  most  regular  and  stupendous 
Gothic  structure  in  existence,  the  consummation  of  grandeur  and  re- 
ligion. When  one  stands  at  night  beside  its  base,  and  lets  his  gaze 
climb  slowly  upward  over  its  enormous  buttresses  and  towers,  the 
effect  is  mountainous,  and  its  architecture  appears  Alpine  in  sub- 
limity, the  mighty  shafts  (which  seem  as  solid  as  the  eternal  hills, 
yet  are  as  graceful  as  the  elm)  rising  until  their  summits  vanish  in 
the  gloom,  like  a  colossal  stairway  leading  up  to  heaven."  ^2) 

The  Minster  of  Ulm  represents  a  later  development,  both  in  de- 
sign and  execution.  Some  of  its  proportions  are  more  colossal  even 
than  those  of  Cologne  Cathedral,  although  the  r^ularity  of  the  latter 
structure  is  absent.  One  other  church  deserves  particular  mention, 
not  only  on  account  of  its  historical  associations,  but  especially  by 
reason  of  its  artistic  spire,  namely  St.  Stephen's  of  Vienna.  The 
western  end  of  this  church  shows  Romanesque  features;  the  Gothic 
sections  were  built  from  1276  to  1446.  The  entire  building  is  covered 
by  one  immense  roof.  Of  its  most  conspicuous  feature,  the  beautiful 
spire,  Stoddard  says :  "Its  graceful  spire,  four  hundred  and  fifty  feet 
in  height,  is  the  dominating  feature  of  the  landscape  at  a  consider- 
able distance  from  the  city;  while,  upon  close  approach,  it  still  re- 
mains an  object  of  great  beauty  —  tapering  gradually  from  base  to 
summit,  and  covered  all  the  way  with  artistic  stone  carving  and 
Gothic    ornamentation.      So   straight   does   it    appear   that    I   could 


91)  History  of  Architecture,  268.  273. 

92)  Stoddard.  Lectures,  VII.  107.  108. 


THE  INFLUENCE  OF  THE  BENAISSANPE.  73 

scarcely  believe  the  statement  that  its  apex  leans  toward  the  north, 
with  a  deviation  from  the  perpendicular  of  more  than  three  feet."  ^^) 
And  what  the  same  author  says  of  this  church  may  be  applied  with 
equal  truth  to  other  Gothic  cathedrals.  "St.  Stephen's  is,  unquestion- 
ably, one  of  the  grandest  temples  ever  reared  for  Christian  worship, 
and  few  cathedrals  in  the  world  have  left  upon  my  mind  such  inef- 
faceable impressions  of  sublimity.  I  love  to  stand  by  one  of  its  huge 
pillars  in  the  twilight  and  silently  absorb  its  solemn  grandeur.  At 
such  a  time  the  distant  roof  is  lost  in  darkness,  and  the  majestic 
columns  rise  into  the  gloom,  like  stately  palms  or  tropic  plants  whose 
leaves  and  flowers  are  the  delicately  chiseled  canopies,  pinnacles,  and 
statues  that  cling  to  the  colossal  shafts  with  countless  filaments,  of 
stone."  94) 


CHAPTER  6. 
The  Influence  of  the  Renaissance  and  the  Neo-Classic  Movement. 

It  seems  impossible  for  the  human  mind  to  continue  indefinitely 
on  the  heights ;  the  fire  of  genius  cannot  be  sustained  beyond  a  golden 
age;  a  great  and  violent  emotion  which  is  able  to  produce  unexcelled 
master-pieces  is  followed  by  a  reaction  with  only  mediocre  attain- 
ments or  adaptations.  Thus  it  was  in  the  period  of  the  Renaissance 
following  that  of  the  Gothic.  "No  longer  was  the  soaring  Gothic 
style  to  voice  in  stone  the  aspirations  of  worshipers  for  closer  inter- 
course with  the  divine."  9*^)  For  the  Renaissance  was  not  the  result 
of  new  principles  of  construction,  it  was  merely  the  expression  of  a 
peculiar  taste  which  grew  out  of  the  humanistic  movement  and  tried 
to  apply  to  Christian  church  buildings  what  may  be  properly  em- 
ployed only  in  secular  structures.  The  Renaissance  in  church  archi- 
tecture is  not  a  more  perfect  development  of  art,  but  an  anachronism, 
suitable,  in  the  symbolism  of  its  churches,  only  for  ultramontanism 
or  other  religions  in  which  the  mediation  of  priests  is  an  essential 
feature.  It  is  the  readaptation  of  something  which  was  really  much 
better  before,  without  understanding  the  nature  of  the  original  or 
the  principles  upon  which  the  ancient  art  was  based. 

This  is  not  to  be  imderstood  as  though  we  did  pot  recognize  the 
value  of  the  Renaissance  movement,  of  the  endeavor  to  return  to  the 
beauty  of  classical  times  and  to  re-create  the  art  of  antiquity  with 
special  reference  to  the  modern  needs.  In  every  other  form  of  buil- 
ding, this  admiration  is  commendable,  but  to  foist  the  lines  of  tra- 
beated  architecture  upon  a  church  building  after  the  glory  of  the 


93)  Lectures,  YI,  173,  94)  P.  176.  177. 

94b)  Mrs.  Bell,  Architecture,  89. 


74 


THE  INFLUENCE  OF  THE  RENAISSANCE. 


pointed-arch  vaulting  had  been  demonstrated,  —  this  is  little  short 
of  sacrilege. 

Fortunately,  the  development  of  this  style  cannot  be  charged  to 
the  Reformation.  Luther  and  his  coworkers  were  too  busy  with  the 
elements  of  Christianity,  with  the  restoration  of  the  Church  to  its 
primitive  purity,  to  take  an  active  part  in  the  fostering  of  the  fine 
arts.  But  this  does  not  mean  that  he  was  in  any  sense  opposed  to  the 
arts  or  decried  their  influence.    His  classical  saying  as  to  placing  all 


PANTHEON,    ROME. 

arts  in  the  service  of  Him  who  created  them,  and  the  fact  that  he 
advocated  their  adoption  in  the  curriculum  of  schools,  effectually  dis- 
proves all  such  charges.  We  have  only  one  direct  statement  by  Luther 
in  relation  to  the  erection  of  churches.  He  is  reported  to  have  said 
in  regard  to  large  churches  in  general  and  the  Cathedral  of  Cologne 
in  particular:  "They  are  unusual  buildings ' and  not  arranged  for 
the  understanding  of  sermons.  Medium-sized  churches  with  low 
vaultings  are  the  best  for  the  preachers  and  the  audience,  because 
the  purpose  of  churches  is  not  the  loud  singing  (Bruellen  und 
Schreien)  of  the  choir-members,  but  the  Word  of  God  and  its  preach- 
ing.   St.  Peter's  of  Rome,  the  churches  of  Cologne  and  Ulm,  are  very 


THE  IXFLUEXCE  OF  THE  RENAISSANCE. 


75 


CASTLE   CHURCH    AT   WITTENBERG. 


76  THE  INFLUENCE  OF  THE  HENAISSANCE. 

large  and  unsuitable."  95)  The  prime  desideratum  as  to  a  Christian 
church,  as  stated  by  Luther,  was  not  essentially  opposed  to  the  Gothic 
style.  In  fact,  Luther  himself  must  have  preached  in  many  of  the 
beautiful  Gothic  parish  churches  of  Germany,  and  he  was  far  from 
advocating  a  general  abandonment  of  these  structures.  So  far  as  the 
apostasy  from  the  historical  Christian  styles  of  church  architecture 
is  concerned,  the  stimulus  did  not  proceed  from  Wittenberg,  but  from 
Rome.  "La  Italy,  where  the  pagan  sympathies,  the  antique  traditions, 
had  never  wholly  stopped,  where  the  medieval  viewpoints  and  alsa 
the  medieval  architecture  had  never  found  an  intelligent  apprecia- 
tion and  a  delighted  acceptance :  there  it  was  where  people,  in  art  in 
general,  but  especially  in  church  architecture,  reverted  to  antique 
principles  and  models  with  full  consciousness."  ^6)  A  short  review 
of  the  development  of  the  Renaissance  style  and  its  sequels  will  en- 
able us  to  form  a  more  perfect  estimate  as  to  the  advantages  and  dis- 
advantages of  this  style,  and  especially  as  to  its  unsuitableness  for 
Christian  church  buildings. 

As  early  as  the  fourteenth  century  there  was  evident  a  tendency 
in  Italy  to  disregard  the  purely  constructive  side  of  church  building 
and  to  emphasize  the  ornamental  or  aesthetic  side.  At  that  time,  it 
still  made  use  of  Gothic  forms  and  is  thus  classed  as  the  Italian. 
Gothic.  With  the  throwing-off  of  Gothic  forms  and  ornaments,  how- 
ever, this  tendency  resulted  in  the  Early  Renaissance  or  the  Formative 
period,  1420 — 1490.  From  the  beginning,  this  style  manifested  an 
antipathy  for  the  rectangular  form  of  church  with  its  idea  of  length, 
preferring  instead,  and  employing,  whenever  possible,  the  central 
type  of  building.  The  characteristic  feature,  therefore,  is  the  cupola 
or  dome,  around  which  all  the  other  parts  of  the  church  are  grouped. 
There  is  a  return  to  barrel-vaulting  and  even  to  the  flat  ceiling.  The 
latter  is  borne  on  classical  pillars,  usually  by  means  of  arcades.  Th& 
f agade  is  gradually  modeled  after  the  antique  temple.  In  some  cases, 
heavy  pilasters  or  half-columns  are  surmounted  by  a  triangular  gable^ 
All  openings,  doors  and  windows,  are  cast  in  antique  forms,  the  heavy 
pediment  increasing  the  idea  of  weight.  "Though  quite  a  few 
churches  of  the  Renaissance  present  themselves  as  beautiful  struc- 
tures in  their  circumstances  and  in  individual  parts,  yet  the  whole- 
movement,  from  the  standpoint  of  church  history,  must  be  regarded 
as  an  aberration  from  church  tradition,  and  condemned  as  a  lapse 
into  the  profane  and,  in  part,  even  into  the  pagan."  9'')  This  stage 
of  the  Renaissance  was,  fortunately,  confined  to  Italy.  It  produced 
the  magnificently  beautiful  dome  of  the  Cathedral  of  Florence,  whick 


95)  St.  Louis,  Ed.,  22,  1698.  96)  Meurer,  Op.  cit.,  87. 

97)  Gradmann,  Op.  cit.,  432. 


THE  INFLUENCE  OF  THE  RENAISSANCE. 


77 


80  far  overshadows  the  other  parts  of  the  building  that  the  nave  ap- 
pears as  a  mere  appendage  to  the  dome. 

During  the  second  period  of  the  Renaissance,  the  High  Renais- 


:.uucv.  ui  iuiiiia.iy  Classic,  1490 — l^.aj,  Aie  movement  reached  its  cul- 
mination. The  secession  from  medieval  ideals  was  now  carried  out 
absolutely.  The  Pantheon  becomes  the  great  model,  and  the  chief 
ambition  is  to  follow  all  the  rules  of  Roman  architecture  with  un- 
abating  strictness.    The  idealism  which  strove  to  represent  even  the 


78  THE  INFLUENCE  OF  THE  RENAISSANCE. 

supernatural  in  art  was  discarded  entirely.  Without  degenerating 
into  bland  realism,  the  Renaissance  of  this  period  strove  after  full 
expression  of  a  lofty,  classical  dignity,  which  is  unusually  impressive. 


INTERIOR    OF    CASTLE    CHURCH. 

It  was  possible,  in  this  style,  to  group  great  masses  and  attain  to 
colossal  dimensions  without  interfering  with  the  required  proportion. 
An  artist  that  was  able  to  combine  beauty  and  harmony  with  the 
former  features  had  the  opportunity  to  produce  lasting  works  of  art. 
Since  all  the  lines  of  a  structure  were  simplified  and  arranged  to  have 


THE  INFLUENCE  OF  THE  RENAISSANCE. 


79 


the  horizontal  predominate,  the  niche  became  a  very  welcome  aid  for 
the  enlivening  of  both  the  exterior  and  interior.  In  many  cases,  as 
in  Or  San  Michele,  of  Florence,  there  was  a  great  rivalry  to  place 
appropriate  statuary  into  these  niches.     Some  of  the  greatest  artists 


of  the  Renaissance,  Brunelleschi,  Bramante,  Kalfael,  Michelangelo 
Buonarotti,  and  others,  were  actively  engaged  in  building  or  decorat- 
ing churches  during  the  greater  part  of  their  careers.  In  spite  of  all 
the  emphasis  upon  classical  perfection  in  this  period,  there  is  still  a 
marked  difference  between  these  structures  and  those  of  antiquity, 
since  the  builders  could  not  altogether  ignore  the  demands  of  the 
cultus. 


80  THE  INFLUENCE  OF  THE  BENAISSANCE. 

In  the  Renaissance,  as  in  the  Gothic,  the  decline  set  in  when 
ostentation  became  the  prime  object  in  building.  This  period  is  coiii- 
monly  called  the  Baroque,  1550 — 1625.  Although  critics  have  now 
become  charitable  enough  to  concede  to  this  period  a  place  in  art  de- 
velopment and  find  some  admirable  traits  in  certain  works  of  art 
which  have  been  preserved,  it  remains  true,  nevertheless,  that  arbi- 
trariness and  license  characterize  all  its  achievements.  All  the  prin- 
ciples of  construction  are  sacrificed  for  the  sake  of  pictorial  effect; 
columns  and  other  architectural  parts  are  not  treated  according  to 
their  structural  purpose,  but  merely  as  decorative  members,  and  all 
demands  of  proportion  are  coolly  ignored.  In  many  cases,  the  con- 
glomeration of  the  most  diverse  members  impresses  one  as  the  pro- 
duction of  a  horrible  dream,  and  one  may  well  understand  the  criti- 
cism of  Burckhardt,  who  calls  the  architectural  attainments  of  this 
period  "fever  phantasies  of  architecture."  ^^) 

But  the  limit  of  arbitrariness  had  not  yet  been  reached.  Just 
how  far  builders  would  dare  to  go  when  they  had  once  discarded  the 
principles  and  ideals  of  true  art  was  shown  during  the  seventeenth 
and  the  first  part  of  the  eighteenth  century,  when  the  final  decline 
set  in  with  the  period  of  the  Rococo.  It  was  in  this  period  that  all 
pretense  even  of  definite  architectural  laws  was  given  up.  From 
pompous  omamaitation  the  builders  turned  to  light  and  liquid  forms, 
which  they  combined  in  the  most  astounding  patterns.  Every  form 
of  curve  and  curvilinear  decoration  was  introduced,  everything  was 
twisted  and  turned  in  the  most  senseless  manner.  The  basic  forms 
were  so  completely  covered  that  only  a  disharmonious  conglomeration 
of  strange  combinations  is  presented  to  view.  There  is  ornamenta- 
tion of  the  most  arbitrary  kind:  foliage  and  shells,  urns  and  snails, 
garlands  and  flowers  and  fruits,  curves  and  geometrical  figures, 
human  and  animal  forms  of  all  kinds  alternate.  All  three  kingdoms 
of  nature  are  now  represented  and  that  mostly  in  stucco ;  for  in  place 
of  the  former  sculpture  work  everything  was  now  fashioned  in  stucco 
and  then  glued  to  the  walls.^^)  A  glance  at  the  exterior  and  still 
more  at  the  interior  architecture  of  any  building  showing  strong 
Rococo  features  is  a  surprising  revelation,  for  in  the  niches,  on  the 
altars,  on  the  pulpits  countless  saints,  angels,  and  putti  are  standing, 
sitting,  hanging,  and  balancing  in  strange  and  often  impossible  po- 
sitions, solely  for  the  purpose  of  decoration  and  architectural  sport. 
Both  the  Baroque  and  the  Rococo  was  much  affected  by  the  Jesuits 
in  their  churches,  many  of  which,  with  their  fantastic  and  luxurious 
adornments,  present  a   veritable   night-mare   of   form-combinations. 


98)  Meurer,  Der  Kirchenhau,  89.  99)  Meurer,  Op.  cit.,  91. 


THE  INFLUENCE  OF  THE  RENAISSANCE.  81 

The  Jesuits  also,  in  many  cases,  changed  the  orientation  of  their 
churches,  preferring  to  place  their  altar  at  the  western  end. 

If  we  should  wish  to  summarize  the  characteristics  of  the  Re- 
naissance, the  following  features  may  be  considered  the  most  promi- 
nent. The  plan  was  usually  that  of  the  central  type,  or  as  near  an 
approach  to  this  type  as  was  possible.  A  rectangular  basilica  is  often 
connected  with  the  dome  part  of  the  structure.  In  addition  to  the 
Corinthian  and  Composite  columns  the  Doric  and  Ionic  again  make 
their  appearance.  Horizontal  lines:  lintels  and  balustrades  and  en- 
tablatures according  to  classical  models  are  adopted.  The  flat,  pan- 
eled ceilings  proved  impracticable,  and  so  the  barrel-vaulting  was 
gradually  flattened  down  to  the  mirror-vaulting.  Often  a  series  of 
cupolas  breaks  up  the  ceiling.  The  decoration  of  the  interior  is  rich- 
est in  the  frames  of  the  panels,  where  arabesques  and  festoons  are 
employed  in  the  widest  diversity.  For  the  exterior  decoration,  pilas- 
ters and  half -columns  were  used  extensively.  Round-arched  and  square 
windows  and  doors,  with  and  without  pediments,  occur.  Small  round 
or  oval  windows  are  not  uncommon,  and  twisted  or  broken  curves  are 
employed  from  the  ground  to  the  lantern.  If  one  may  venture  a 
slight  criticism,  it  is  perfectly  evident  that,  in  the  Baroque  and  Ro- 
coco at  any  rate,  at  least  four  of  Ruskin's  seven  lamps  of  architecture 
are  rudely  shattered,  and  the  others  are  pretty  roughly  handled. 

There  was  a  change  for  the  better  with  the  classic  revival  in  the 
last  century,  which  resulted  in  the  Neo-Classic  style.  This  movement 
differed  from  the  Renaissance  in  this  that  it  actually  copied  the  an- 
cient master-pieces,  the  arcades  and  porticos  of  Rome  and  the  temples 
and  colonnades  of  Greece.  Depending  upon  the  features  which  were 
emphasized,  the  style  is  often  designated  as  the  Greco-Roman  or  the 
Neo-Greek.  All  lines  were  forced  to  return  to  classical  simplicity. 
The  vulgar  and  lawless  extravagances,  the  broken  and  contorted  pedi- 
ments, the  huge  scrolls,  heavy  moldings,  ill-applied  sculpture  in  ex- 
aggerated attitudes,  all  these  evidences  of  the  Jesuit  style  disappeared 
wherever  the  influence  of  the  excavations  in  classical  lands  mani- 
fested itself.  But  the  effect  of  such  fonns,  when  taken  out  of  their 
historical  and  scenic  setting,  is  strangely  incongruent.  There  is  a 
frosty  aloofness  about  the  classical  buildings  which  rendered  them 
unfit  for  Christian  churches,  as  appropriate  as  we  concede  them  to 
be  for  classical  colleges,  museums,  and  buildings  of  a  similar  nature. 
The  attempt  to  fit  the  Christian  cultus  to  the  old  pagan  temples  is 
/bound  to  result  badly  for  either  the  classical  building  or  for  the 
Christian  service,  probably  for  both,  and  seems  a  sacrilege  from  the 
standpoint  of  the  latter. 

In  spite  of  the  severe  criticism  which  we  are  obliged  to  pass  on 

Kretzmann,  Christian  Art.  6 


82 


THE  INFLUENCE  OF  THE  RENAISSANCE. 


the  Renaissance  and  the  Neo-Classic  movements  from  the  standpoint 
of  the  appropriateness  of  their  monuments  for  Christian  churches, 
we  do  not  in  any  way  wish  to  convey  the  impression  as  though  none 
of  them  were  worthy  of  being  deemed  works  of  art.  Some  of  the 
church  edifices  of  the  High  Renaissance  and  of  the  Classic  Revival 
rank  with  the  greatest  master-pieces  of  all  times,  if  dissociated  from 
the  use  to  which  they  have  been  put.  The  most  costly  Christian 
church  in  the  world  is  St.  Peter's  of  Rome.  It  represents  the  cul- 
mination of  the  High  Renaissance  in  Italy.  It  was  planned  by  Pope 
Nicolaus  V  in  1450,  who  chose  for  it  the  site  of  the  old  basilica  of 


INTERIOR   OF   ST.    PETER'S   BASILICA,    ROME. 

St.  Peter.  But  work  had  hardly  been  started  when  the  pope  died, 
and  his  successors  were  not  interested  in  the  project.  But  in  150& 
Julius  II  commissioned  Bramante  to  carry  out  the  design.  The  first 
plan  showed  a  Greek  cross  with  apsidal  arms.  The  large  dome  in  the 
center  was  to  be  flanked  by  four  smaller  ones  over  the  arms,  while 
the  comers  were  to  receive  slender  towers.  After  the  death  of  Bra- 
mante, RaflFael,  and  later  Sangallo,  changed  the  plan  to  the  rectan- 
gular form,  but  did  not  carry  out  the  design.  Michelangelo  turned 
back  to  the  plan  of  Bramante,  with  minor  changes,  •  such  as  the 
placing  of  the  four  small  cupolas  over  the  corners  of  the  square. 
His  dome  was  even  larger  and  higher  than  the  one  originally  de- 
signed. It  was  finished  in  1604  under  the  direction  of  Fontana.  Pope 
Paul  V  insisted  upon  having  Madema  lengthen  the  nave,  thus  spoil- 
ing the  idea  of  Hhe  central  type.    In  1626  Urban  VIII  coizld  finally 


THE  INFLUENCE  OF  THE  BENAISSANCE.  83 

dedicate  the  great  structure.  The  imposing  approach  with  the  double 
colonnades  was  added  by  Bernini,  who  finished  them  in  1637.  The 
proportions  of  this  great  domed  church  are  immense.  The  total 
length  of  the  nave  is  592  feet,  with  a  span  of  vaulting  83  feet  wide, 
the  total  width  of  this  central  aisle  being  92  feet.  The  dome  is  140 
feet  in  inside  diameter  and  has  a  total  height  of  405  feet.  It  is  un- 
fortunate that  the  imposing  proportions  of  the  great  structure  are 
marred  by  the  lack  of  perspective.  Only  the  dome  presents  the  "most 
beautiful  and  exalted  outline  of  any  edifice  in  the  world."  In  proud 
and  haughty  massiveness  the  Church  of  St.  Peter  to-day  stands  un- 
surpassed. It  is  a  gigantic  master-piece  of  architecture,  whose  en- 
semble cannot  fail  to  impress  every  visitor,  but  which,  viewed  from 
the  standpoint  of  its  use  as  a  Christian  church,  does  not  satisfy  the 
heart.  The  hypnotism  and  witchery  of  its  masses  have  caused  it  to 
become  an  example  and  a  type  leading  to  a  false  conception  of  a 
Christian  church  building.^*'*')  The  following  quotation  is  from  the 
description  of  a  layman,  and  therefore  is  doubly  interesting.  "It  re- 
quires time  to  comprehend  the  immensity  of  St.  Peter's,  and  it  is 
usually  only  after  several  visits  that  one  is  able  to  appreciate  its 
enormous  size.  It  is  so  vast  that  we  inevitably  lose  at  first  our  sense 
of  true  proportion,  and  our  bewildered  minds  must  readapt  them- 
selves and  grow  to  their  new  and  strange  environment.  Thus,  people 
in  the  distance,  who  appear  to  us  like  pygmies,  are  really  men  and 
women  of  the  usual  height.  The  bases  of  the  coliunns,  which  seem 
low  to  us,  we  find  to  be  on  a  level  with  our  heads.  The  spaces  in  the 
huge  pilasters  look  like  slender  flutings,  but  are  in  reality  niches  deep 
enough  to  hold  colossal  statues.  Perhaps  we  think  that  the  font  of 
holy  water  in  St.  Peter's  is  no  larger  than  those  in  ordinary  churches ; 
but  when  we  examine  it  more  closely,  we  discover  that  the  marble 
cherubs  supporting  it,  which  at  a  distance  look  like  children,  are 
fully  equal  in  dimensions  to  adults."  i^i)  Another  Italian  church  of 
this  period,  which  is  worthy  of  mention,  is  Sta.  Maria  della  Salute, 
of  Venice.  It  is  situated  at  the  entrance  of  the  great  canal  and  is 
crowned  with  a  cupola  noted  for  its  symmetry  and  elegance. 

In  England  there  is  one  great  monument  of  the  Classic  Renais- 
sance, or  of  the  Anglo-Italian  style,  which  stands  out  so  completely 
from  all  the  rest  as  to  be  considered  in  a  class  by  itself.  That  is 
St.  Paul's  Cathedral,  built  by  Sir  Christopher  Wren  (1675—1710). 
It  has  the  proportions  of  a  Gothic  cathedral,  with  rotunda  and  dome, 
the  latter  reaching  the  magnificent  height  of  360  feet.  In  area,  it  is 
the  third  largest  church  in  the  Christian  world.  A  drawback  of  the 
dome,  from  the  aesthetic  viewpoint,  is  the  fact  that  its  inner  drum 


100)  Meurer,  Op.  cit.,  87.  88.        101)  Stoddard,  Lectures,  VIII,  316. 


84 


THE  INFLUENCE  OP  THE  RENAISSANCE. 


gradually  becomes  narrower  at  the  top,  giving  to  the  great  support- 
ing pillars  an  oblique  position.  The  church  is  also  conspicuously 
bare  of  ornamentation.  But  in  every  other  respect,  the  impression 
of  the  cathedral  is  such  that  it  "reflects,  in  its  solemn  and  dignified 
beauty,  almost  as  clearly  as  did  a  medieval  ecclesiastical  Gothic  edi- 
fice, the  spirit  of  its  age,  during  which  the  Puritan  replaced  the 
Roman  Catholic  ideal,  and  a  rigid  Protestantism  became  the  religion 
of  the  people."  i^^)     The  description  which  Stoddard  offers  is  less  en- 


ST.   PAUL'S,   LONDON. 

thusiastic,  while  giving  full  credit  to  the  nobility  and  serenity  of  the 
great  English  cathedral.i^S) 

In  Germany  no  Renaissance  church  on  such  an  enormous  scale- 
was  planned  and  executed.  Nevertheless,  there  are  many  smaller 
monuments  which  are  worthy  at  least  of  passing  noticed  Among  the 
earlier  examples  are  St.  Michael's  of  Munich  (1582),  the  Marien- 
kirche  at  Wolfenbuettel,  and  the  Marienkirche  at  Dresden.  Of  the 
later  churches,  the  Frauenkirche  of  Dresden  (1721)  is  commonly  con- 
sidered a  representative  structure.  It  has  the  form  of  a  square  with* 
roiuided  corners.    Its  dome  rests  upon  eight  large  pillars.     The  apse 


102)  Mrs.  Bell,  Architecture,  91.        103)  Lectures,  IX,  284—289. 


THE  INFLUENCE  OF  THE  RENAISSANCE.  85- 

is  a  semicircular  extension  behind  the  choir.  But  the  entire  arrange- 
ment is  strongly  reminiscent  of  a  theatre.  In  Trinity  and  in  St. 
Michael's,  of  Hamburg,  the  principles  of  the  Renaissance  style,  with 
certain  Baroque,  and  even  Rococo,  features,  have  been  applied  to  the 
Protestant  demands,  especially  as  to  cultus. 

In  France  there  is  one  example  of  the  Renaissance  which  seems 
to  point  forward  to  the  full  classic  revival.  This  is  the  Pantheon 
(1755).  It  is  called  by  Hamlin  "the  greatest  ecclesiastical  monument 
of  its  time  in  France."  ^^)  It  shows,  in  almost  every  part,  classical 
simplicity  and  directness,  without  the  specifically  extravagant  fea- 
tures of  the  Baroque,  which  was  then  prevalent  in  France. 

Even  in  far-away  Russia  we  find  monuments  of  the  High  Re- 
naissance, which  were  carried  out  with  all  the  magnificence  and 
luxury  of  a  splendor-loving  people.  Not  only  are  the  proportions  of 
Our  Lady  of  Kazan  and  of  St.  Isaac's  vast  and  imposing,  but  the 
decorations  and  furnishings  of  the  churches  challenge  the  power  of 
comprehension,  assuming  almost  fabulous  proportions.  Of  the  latter 
church  we  read:  "St.  Isaac's  Cathedral  is  an  illustration  of  the  fact 
that,  when  she  makes  the  effort,  Russia  can  surpass  the  world  in  the 
magnificence  of  her  architecture;  for  the  treasures  of  her  quarries 
are  exhaustless,  and  the  skill  of  her  lapidaries  is  unexcelled.  It  is, 
however,  unfortunate,  that  there  is  no  eminence  in  St.  Petersburg 
[Petrograd]  on  which  St.  Isaac's  could  have  been  placed;  since,  at 
even  a  little  distance,  it  is  impossible  to  see  to  advantage  the  stair- 
ways leading  to  its  various  portals.  Yet  each  of  these  steps  is  one 
gigantic  block  of  rose  granite,  worthy  of  the  Egyptian  temple  of 
Karnak;  and  every  portico  is  supported  by  stupendous  shafts  of  the 
same  material,  sixty  feet  in  height  and  seven  feet  in  diameter,  and 
polished  like  the  surface  of  a  mirror.  .  .  .  But  if  this  be  the  exterior, 
how  shall  I  describe  the  interior  of  this  temple  of  the  North  ?  Before 
its  gilded  altar-screen  are  ten  columns  o£  malachite,  thirty  feet  high, 
and  pillars  of  lapis-lazuli,  each  of  which  cost  thirty  thousand  dollars. 
This  exceeds  every  other  display  of  these  marvelous  stones  that  the 
world  knows.  We  are  accustomed  to  regard  a  small  fragment  of 
either  as  a  valuable  ornament.  Imagine,  then,  whole  columns  of 
them  five  times  as  high  as  ourselves!  Yet  this  is  only  in  keeping 
with  the  entire  building;  for  in  St.  Isaac's  we  tread  a  pavement  of 
vari^ated  marble;  we  ascend  steps  of  polished  jasper;  we  clasp  rail- 
ings of  pure  alabaster;  and  are  surrounded  by  walls  inlaid  with  ver- 
dantique  and  porphyry,  interspersed  with  vast  mosaic  portraits  of 
the  saints,  and  shrines  of  gold  incrusted  with  jewels.     One  portrait 


104)  History  of  Architecture,  Chapter  XXIII. 


86 


THE  INFLUENCE  OF  THE  BENAISSANCE. 


of  Christ  is  studded  with  diamonds,  the  largest  of  which  is  valued  at 
thirty-five  thousand  dollars.  The  whole,  in  fact,  is  so  magnificent  as 
to  appear  incredible  until  actually  seen."  i^) 

St.  Paul's  Cathedral,  of  London,  and  St.  Genevieve,  of  Paris, 
later  called  the  Pantheon,  foreshadowed  the  Neo-Classic  movement, 


PEACE   CHURCH   AT   POTSDAM. 

which  gained  the  ascendency,  even  for  ecclesiastical  architecture,  at 
the  end  of  the  eighteenth  century,  at  least  in  France  and  England. 
The  most  characteristic  and  representative  monument  is  La  Made- 
leine, in  Paris.  This  church  was  built  by  Vignon  as  a  classic  temple, 
and  surrounded  with  Corinthian  columns.     Viewed  from  the  stand- 


103)  Stoddard,  Lectures,  VI,  237—242. 


THE  INFLUENCE  OF  THE  RENAISSANCE. 


87 


point  of  a  lover  of  classical  antiquity,  the  structure  is  a  marvel  of 
symmetry  and  perfection.  "It  is  a  beautiful  reminder  of  those  clas- 
sic lines  which  had  the  Acropolis  for  a  pedestal,  Pentelic  marble  for 
material,  and  for  a  background  the  Athenian  sky.  Two  thousand 
years  have  rolled  away  since  Grecian  architects  and  sculptors  placed 


before  the  world  those  glorious  models  which  have  conquered  time, 
but  we  have  not  improved  upon  them.  Wherever  they  are  produced, 
even  with  less  attractive  stone,  less  perfect  statues,  and  less  wonder- 
ful embellishment,  they  charm  us  still.  ...  So  much  does  it  recall 
the  temples  of  antiquity  that  it  at  first  seems  incongruous  that  this 
should  be  a  Christian  church."  1^6)     The  last  statement  is  supported 


106)  Stoddard,  Lectures,  V,  14.  15. 


88  CHUBCH  BUILDING  IN  AMERICA. 

very -strongly  by  Hamlin,  when  he  writes:  "However  suitable  for  a 
pantheon  or  mausoleum,  it  seems  strangely  inappropriate  as  a  design 
for  a  Christian  church."  107) 

The  last  century  has  brought  no  new  developments  in  church 
architecture.  The  parish  churches  of  England  are  eminently  suited 
to  the  demands  of  that  country  and  its  cultus.  "Notwithstanding  the 
infinite  number  and  variety  of  our  parish  churches  —  size,  design, 
construction,  and  plan  —  yet  distinctly  national  types  were  evolved, 
characteristic  of  the  English  temperament  and  enshrining  many  of 
its  best  qualities,  such  as  sturdiness,  practical  utility,  and  above  all 
adaptability  to  circumstance."  ^^^)  By  adopting  the  fundamental 
principles  of  the  Gothic  style  and  adapting  it,  with  certain  modifica- 
tions, to  their  own  needs  and  wants,  the  English  have  thus  evolved  a 
style  which  is  both  characteristic  and  suitable.  In  France,  exponents 
of  the  various  styles  endeavored  to  bring  about  a  revival  of  interest. 
Even  the  basilica  is  again  brought  forward  as  a  suitable  form  of 
Christian  church  building.  In  Germany,  the  case  is  much  the  same. 
The  friends  of  the  Gothic,  both  Catholics  and  Protestants,  succeeded 
in  bringing  about  a  revival  of  pure  Gothic.  The  Votive  Church  in 
Vienna  is  the  result  of  such  labors,  as  well  as  the  completion  of  the 
Cathedral  of  Cologne  and  the  Minster  of  Ulm.  On  the  other  hand, 
Protestants  denounced  the  Gothic  in  its  perfection  as  opposed  to  the 
Evangelical  cultus.  There  was  also  some  eclecticism  and  compro- 
mise. St.  Luke's  in  Munich,  St.  Michael's  in  Bremen,  and  the  Em- 
peror William  Memorial  Church  in  Berlin  are  the  result  of  the  appli- 
cation of  the  Gothic  principles  to  a  rather  liberal  interpretation  of 
the  cultus.  The  resolution  of  the  Dresden  and  Eisenach  conference 
have  served,  in  a  way,  to  quiet  the  controversy  and  prepare  for  sound 
principles  in  church  building.  Much  of  the  difficulty  undoubtedly 
would  be  removed,  if  the  various  Protestant  factions  could  come  to  a 
thorough  agreement  as  to  sound  basis  of  doctrine  and  its  expression 
in  the  cultus  of  the  church. 


CHAPTER  7. 
Church  Building  in  America. 

It  is  only  in  late  years  that  the  history  of  American  church 
architecture  and  the  discussion  of  the  principles  of  the  various  styles 
in  this  country  have  received  closer  attention.  There  are  few  cities, 
of  course,  that  have  no  church  buildings  of  some  costliness  and 
beauty,  worthy  of  more  than  passing  notice.    But  it  was  only  through 


107)  History  of  Architecture,  371. 

108)  Cox,  The  English  Parish  Church,  It 


CHURCH  BUILDING  IN  AMERICA.  89 

the  work  of  Embury,  Cram,  and  other  friends  of  ecclesiastical  archi- 
tecture that  attention  was  called  to  a  feature  of  our  country  which 
is  growing  in  importance  every  year,  namely,  the  erecting  of  suitable 
parish  churches  throughout  the  length  and  breadth  of  our  great  land. 
In  many  cases,  the  interest  may  be  more  an  historical  than  an  artistic 
one,  but  a  closer  acquaintance  with  the  places  of  worship  of  the  vari- 
ous denominations  is  decidedly  worth  while. 

The  oldest  Christian  churches  erected  within  the  present  boun- 
daries of  the  United  States  are  some  Catholic  chapels  in  and  near 
Santa  Fe,  New-  Mexico.  After  Coronado  and  his  famous  band  of 
explorers  had  opened  up  the  territory  in  1542,  the  priests  followed. 
In  the  early  years  of  the  seventeenth  century,  they  built  quite  a  num- 
ber of  chapels  in  that  section  of  the  country.  Most  of  these,  if  not 
all,  were  erected  of  adobe  and  may  have  been  similar  to  that  of  Acoma, 
which  is  still  standing,  though  sadly  in  need  of  repair.  Rude  as  they 
were  in  construction,  they  served  their  purpose  admirably  and  were 
also  eminently  suited  to  the  climate  and  to  the  historical  associations 
of  their  type. 

The  first  Christian  church  in  the  East  of  which  we  have  record 
is  that  which  Captain  John  Smith  described.  "When  we  first  went 
to  Virginia,  I  well  remember  we  did  hang  an  awneing  (which  is  an 
old  saile)  to  three  or  four  trees,  to  shadow  us  from  the  sunne ;  our 
walls  were  rales  of  wood ;  our  seats  imhewed  trees  till  we  cut  plankes ; 
our  Pulpit  a  bar  of  wood  nailed  to  two  neighboring  trees.  In  foule 
weather,  we  shifted  into  an  old  rotten  tent,  for  we  had  few  better, 
and  this  came  by  way  of  adventure  for  new.  This  was  our  church 
till  we  built  a  homely  thing  like  a  barne,  set  upon  cratchets,  covered 
with  rafts,  sedge,  and  earth;  so  was  the  walls."  i<^)  How  these  men, 
who  were  almost  without  exception  members  of  the  Anglican  Church, 
must  have  missed  the  cathedrals  and  even  the  parish  churches  of  the 
old  country !  But  the  appearance  of  this  rude  log  church  would  have 
seemed  strangely  familiar  to  some  of  the  pioneer  missionaries  sixty 
or  eighty  years  ago,  and  the  chances  are  that  the  northernmost  Lu- 
theran church  in  Canada  to-day  is  built  in  the  same  grand  style,  as 
a  cathedral  of  faith  and  sacrifice. 

When  the  Puritans  landed  at  Plymouth  a  dozen  years  later,  one 
of  the  first  acts  was  the  erection  of  a  meeting-hovfee,  a  large,  square 
building  with  a  flat  roof,  on  which  were  mounted  six  cannon.  As 
new  settlements  were  made  along  the  coast  and  in  the  interior,  this 
square  meeting-house  became  a  characteristic  feature  of  the  village, 
especially  since  is  was  the  original  township  hall  and  community 
center  now  so  widely  heralded  as  a  twentieth  century  idea. 


109)  In  Embury,  Early  American  Churches,  7.  8. 


90  CHURCH  BUILDING   IN  AMERICA. 

When  the  Swedes  landed  on  the  Delaware  less  than  a  score  of 
years  later,  they  also  made  it  a  point  to  provide  a  place  of  worship  at 
once  as  a  forerunner  of  many  which  afterward  dotted  the  landscape. 
It  is  probable  that  the  rectangular  form  of  church  was  immediately 
employed,  since  this  is  the  plan  in  general  use  for  the  later  churches 
in  this  region. 

The  meeting-house  style,  as  it  was  subsequently  called,  with 
churches  in  the  form  of  a  square  or  a  short  rectangle  with  a  low  roof, 
became  the  governing  style  in  New  England,  wherever  the  Puritan 
influence  extended.  But  outside  factors  succeeded  in  introducing 
embellishing  features  which  served,  at  least  in  a  way,  to  enliven  the 
exterior  of  the  churches.  The  Ship  Meeting  House,  of  Hingham, 
Massachusetts,  which  dates  from  1681,  is  square  with  a  hipped  roof 
and  a  small  belfry.  Copies  or  adaptations  of  this  church  may  be 
found  in  many  cities,  towns,  and  hamlets  along  the  North  Atlantic 
coast. 

In  the  early  eighteenth  century,  this  style,  which  was  exception- 
ally bare  and  rude,  was  influenced  to  some  extent  by  the  last  effort 
of  the  Renaissance  period,  thus  resulting  in  the  Colonial  or  American 
Georgian  style.  Old  North  Church  of  Boston  (1723)  is  an  early  ex- 
ample of  this  style.  It  is  a  rectangle,  with  two  tiers  of  circular- 
headed  windows.  The  body  makes  a  rather  heavy  impression,  but 
the  tower  with  its  spire  is  slim,  light,  and  elegant.  Trinity  Church, 
of  Newport,  and  Old  South  Church  also  show  these  features,  though 
the  spire  in  the  latter  is  not  so  graceful.  King's  Chapel,  of  Boston, 
has  yielded  more  completely  to  Renaissance  influence.  It  is  their 
history  rather  than  their  art  which  makes  these  churches  memorable, 
as  also  Christ  Church,  in  Philadelphia.  There  are  two  other  churches 
in  the  Middle  Atlantic  States  which  deserve  mention,  St.  Paul's 
Chapel,  of  New  York  City,  and  the  Lutheran  Church  of  the  Holy 
Trinity,  Lancaster,  Pennsylvania  (1761 — 1766).  Trinity,  of  Reading, 
and  St.  John's,  of  Philadelphia,  also  belong  to  this  group. 

The  pure  Colonial  style,  with  the  elimination  of  the  essentially 
typical  meeting-house  features,  had  a  better  chance  for  development 
in  the  Middle  and  SoutKern  States.  St.  Luke's,  near  Smithfield, 
Virginia  (1632),  indeed  shows  reminiscences  of  the  Older  Gothic. 
Its  stepped  gable  has  reappeared  in  some  recent  churches.  The  Glo- 
ria Dei  Church,  at  Philadelphia  (1697),  the  Old  Swedes'  Church,  at 
Wilmington,  Delaware  (1698),  St.  Peter's,  of  New  Kent  County, 
"Virginia  (1700),  and  many  Lutheran  churches  of  Pennsylvania, 
Maryland,  and  Virginia  are  strongly  Romanesque  in  appearance. 
But  the  so-called  brick  churches  of  Virginia  and  North  Carolina, 
and  the  stone  and  stucco  churches  of  South  Carolina  and  Georgia 


CHURCH  BUILDING  IN  AMERICA. 


91 


TRINITY   CHURCH.   NEW   YORK  CITY. 


92 


CHUBCH  BUILDING  IN  AMERICA. 


exhibit  preponderating  Colonial  features.  A  typical  example  is 
Bruton  Parish  Church,  of  Williamsburg,  Virginia.  It  is,  as  Embury 
says,  a  typical  Virginia  type,  the  brick  being  laid  in  Flemish  bond, 
And  the  cornice  greatly  reduced  from  the  colonial  pattern.  The  tower 
is  somewhat  low  and  heavy.  St.  Michael's,  of  Charleston,  though 
purporting  to  be  of  a  pronounced  Renaissance  stamp,  is  a  trifle  heavy, 
especially  in  tower  and  spire.  On  the  other  hand,  Christ  Church,  of 
Alexandria,  Virginia,  and  Pohick  Church,  historically  interesting 
because  Washington  was  a  regular  worshiper  there,  are  Colonial  with 


OLD   ZION'S   CHURCH,   NEW  YORK   STATE. 

a  decided  classical  tendency,  of  which  their  Ionic  and  Tuscan  col- 
umns bear  witness. 

In  the  meantime,  the  far  Southwest  was  again  becoming  "the 
scene  of  Catholic  missionary  endeavors,  with  the  attendant  church 
tuilding.  A  Mallorca  friar  of  the  Franciscan  order,  Junipero  Serra, 
was  sent  to  establish  missions  in  Alta  California,  as  distinguished 
from  Baja  or  Lower  California.  With  only  a  little  company  he 
marched  overland,  while  supplies  were  sent  by  sea,  until  he  reached 
San  Diego  Bay,  discovered  by  Cabrillo  two  hundred  and  twenty  years 
before.  Here  he  foiinded  the  mission  of  San  Diego  de  Alcala.  It 
was  the  first  of  a  long  row  of  stations  which  extended  northward  to 
the  Bay  of  San  Francisco  and  eastward  to  the  Colorado  River.  There 
may  have  been  some  lines  of  the  Romanesque  style  which  served  as 


CHURCH  BUILDING  IN  AMERICA. 


93 


a  model  for  the  California  mission  churches,  but,  on  the  whole,  they 
seem  a  spontaneous  creation,  simple,  but  most  artistically  effective, 
.and  fitting  in  thoroughly  with  the  climate  and  the  romance  of  the 
land.     The  mission  chapel  was  usually  one  part  of  a  group,  which 


OLD   CHRIST'S   CHURCH,    ALEXANDRIA,   VA. 

Included  also  living  rooms  and  cloistered  dormitories  surroimding  a 
patio.  Xot  the  least  charm  of  the  chapels  lies  in  the  manner  in  which 
the  bells  were  suspended,  in  arched  openings  of  the  heavy  walls.  The 
beautiful  quaintness  and  compelling  interest  of  these  churches  is 
such  as  has  impressed  its  stamp  upon  architecture,  not  only  in  Cali- 
fornia, but  throughout  the  entire  Southwest. 


94  CHUKCH  BUILDING   IN  AMERICA. 


SAN   GABRIEL   MISSION,    PASADENA. 


CHURCH  BUILDING  IN  AMERICA. 


95 


The  Classic  Revival  in  the  East,  which  extended  from  about  1810 
to  1850,  left  its  marks  on  a  number  of  churches,  some  of  them  being 
built  entirely  in  the  Neo-Classic  style.  A  fine  example  is  the  Monu- 
mental Church,  of  Richmond,  Virginia,  built  in  1812.  But  this  in- 
fluence was  by  no  means  dominating,  as  the  North  Reformed  Church, 
of  Schaalenburg,  New  Jersey,  which  has  a  Gothic  design,  and  others 
illustrate.  There  was  even  an  Egyptian  revival,  leaving  its  mark  on 
the  First  Presbyterian  Church,  of  Sag  Harbor,  Long  Island. 


OL.U    CHUHCll    IN    MACKINAC. 

During  the  so-called  War  Period,  which  extended  from  1850  to 
1876,  some  more  pretentious  structures  were  attempted  in  various 
parts  of  the  country.  St.  Patrick's,  of  New  York  City,  is  an  example 
of  Gothic  design.  It  makes  a  somewhat  cold  and  formal  impression, 
lacking  the  vigor  and  spontaneity  of  the  Gothic  cathedrals.  During 
this  time,  the  churches  of  the  Middle  West  were,  for  the  most  part, 
still  of  a  more  primitive  kind.  The  days  of  the  pioneer  were  not  yet 
wholly  left  behind.  But  the  last  quarter  of  the  last  century  marked 
a  definite  change.    The  age  of  the  mere  builders  of  churches  drew  to 


96 


CHURCH  BUILDING  IN  AMERICA. 


a  close,  and  we  find  more  and  more  architects  with  a  real  understand- 
ing of  the  art  of  building.  Trinity  Church,  of  Boston,  is  generally 
conceded  to  be  a  splendid  example  of  the  Romanesque  revival,  being 
patterned  after  the  Cathedral  of  Salamanca,  in  Spain.  "The  harmony 
of  both  the  exterior  and  interior  proclaims  this  edifice  one  of  the  few 
of  first  rank- in  America."  "")     The  Cathedral  of  All  Saints,  at  Al- 


STANFORD  MEMORIAL    CHURCH,    PALO    ALTO,    CAL. 

bany,  also  deserves  mention  in  this  connection  as  a  type  of  the  metro- 
politan cathedrals  in  America  whose  number  is  increasing  very 
rapidly. 

During  the  last  two  decades,  the  situation  has  improved  in  every 
respect.  In  many  sections  of  the  country,  indeed,  a  very  arbitrary 
eclecticism  is  still  at  work.  Some  architects  or  builders  are  persist- 
ently seeking  after  the  American  Church  style,  a  style  which  will,  as 


110)  Euoff,  Volume  Library,  428. 


CHURCH  BUILDING  IX  AMERICA.  97 

they  confidently  hope,  express  the  great  ideal  which  has  been  an- 
nounced: One  language,  one  God,  one  church!  The  results,  up  to 
the  present  time,  have  been  little  short  of  disastrous  to  the  idea  of 
true  art  which,  though  following  fundamental  rules,  demands  spon- 
taneity of  expression.  At  one  time,  the  Mormon  Tabernacle  at  Salt 
Lake  City,  which  has  been  pronounced  almost  perfect,  so  far  as 
acoustics  are  concerned,  engaged  the  attention  of  building  commit- 
tees. Then  again,  the  social  features  of  a  congregation's  activities 
have  been  emphasized  so  strongly  as  to  give  the  dominant  note  to  the 
plan  for  a  new  church.  In  still  other  cases,  the  plan  of  a  Greek  theater 
has  been  adhered  to  with  sufficient  exactness  to  create  a  very  definite 
illusion.  In  the  Southwest,  as  mentioned  above,  the  California  Mis- 
sion style  is  influencing  a  great  many  ecclesiastical  structures. 

On  the  whole,  however,  denominational  characteristics  seem  to 
be  governing  the  choice  of  style  and  the  execution  of  the  church 
buildings,  both  as  to  exterior  and  interior.  The  Reformed  churches 
in  general  have  retained  the  Meeting-house  style,  with  modifications 
due  to  time  and  place.  Their  buildings  in  general,  with  square  or 
low  ceilings,  make  the  impression  of  heaviness.  The  somber  dignity 
and  forbidding  strictness  of  Puritan  times  is  still  evident,  in  a 
measure.  The  Unitarians,  Universalists,  and  Christian  Scientists 
are  addicted  to  a  plan  which  can  best  be  described  as  a  Renaissance 
temple.  The  Catholics  are  often  governed  by  local  considerations, 
but  the  pure  high  Renaissance,  and  the  Romanesque  and  Middle 
Gothic  are  found  oftenest  in  their  larger  churches,  modified  to  suit 
their  cultus.  The  Protestant  Episcopal  Church  has  practically 
adopted  the  Perpendicular  Gothic  and  the  Tudor  Gothic  for  its  own. 
Not  only  the  larger  cathedrals,  but  many  of  the  smaller  parish 
churches  exhibit  all  the  characteristics  of  these  English  styles,  car- 
ried out  with  a  marvelous  fidelity  of  adherence  to  certain  rules  of 
their  cultus.  It  is  this  church  body  which  is  doing  more  than  any 
other  in  this  coimtry  to  enlighten  the  people  as  to  artistic  require- 
ments in  church  design  and  ornamentation. 

It  is  very  difficult  to  make  an  appropriate  selection  of  represen- 
tative American  churches.  The  following  list,  while  by  no  means 
exhaustive,  will  still  contain  the  names  of  some  of  the  finest  churches 
erected  in  recent  years,  or  still  in  the  course  of  construction.  Of  the 
Cathedral  of  St.  John  the  Divine,  of  New  York  City,  the  chapels  and 
the  triumphal  arch  are  now  completed.  The  Roman  Catholic  Cathe- 
dral of  Denver  is  a  Gothic  structure  with  a  somewhat  cold  impres- 
sion. The  Cathedral  of  St.  John,  in  the  same  city,  is  in  the  Perpen- 
dicular Gothic,  carried  out  extremely  well.  The  Cathedral  of  St. 
Paul,  in  St.  Paul,  is  certainly  one  of  the  greatest  monuments  of  the 

KretzDiann,  Christian  Art.  7 


98  HISTORY  OF  ECCLESIASTICAL  ART. 

High  Renaissance  in  the  Mississippi  Valley.  Built  according  to  the 
central  type,  it  occupies,  with  its  great  dome,  a  commanding  position 
at  the  edge  of  the  plateau  overlooking  the  river  valley.  Other  notable 
churches  are  St.  Paul's  Cathedral,  of  Detroit,  the  First  Presbyterian 
Church,  of  Oakland,  California,  Calvary  Church,  of  Pittsburg,  the 
House  of  Hope  Presbyterian  Church,  of  St.  Paul,  the  Chapel  of  the 
United  States  Military  Academy,  at  West  Point,  St.  Thomas's  Church, 
of  New  York  City,  and  the  Cathedral  of  the  Incarnation,  of  Baltimore. 


CHAPTER  8. 
History  of  Ecclesiastical   Art:    Sculpture,   Painting,  and   Mosaics. 

The  insinuation  which  has  often  been  made,  especially  by  ene- 
mies of  Christianity,  and  which  often  assumes  the  proportions  of  a 
direct  charge,  as  though  the  spirit  of  Christianity  is  inimical  to  true 
art,  is  absolutely  without  foundation.  "It  was  the  natural  result  of 
the  decay  of  Roman  society,  rather  than  enmity  to  sculpture,  that 
eliminated  it  from  the  field  of  art  at  about  the  time  when  Christianity 
became  the  religion  of  the  state  under  Constantine.  .  .  .  The  decay 
was  general  throughout  the  Roman  world,  both  East  and  West."  m) 
It  is  owing  to  this  general  decay  of  sculptural  art  that  its  Christian 
phase  can  hardly  be  said  to  have  existed  before  the  fourth  century. 

The  earliest  examples  of  the  sculptor's  art,  which  often  indeed 
hardly  deserve  the  designation,  but  are  more  like  the  imitations  of 
artisans,  have  been  placed  by  critics  in  the  third  century.  Designs 
carved  on  the  stone  slabs  of  sarcophagi,  known  as  graffiti^  represent 
the  earliest  endeavors  to  portray  Christian  symbols  or  historical  sub- 
jects. They  show  not  only  the  conceptions  of  death  and  future  life 
prevalent  in  the  early  Christian  community,  but  also  scenes  from 
Bible  and  secular  history.  We  find  pictures  of  Ulysses  and  the  Si- 
rens, the  Three  Men  in  the  Fiery  Furnace,  the  Magi,  Good  Shepherd, 
Jonah,  Xoah  in  the  Ark,  Raising  of  Lazarus,  Holy  Trinity  and 
Creation  of  Man,  Logos  between  Adam  and  Eve,  Daniel  among  the 
Lions,  Denial  of  Peter,  Moses  with  Tables  of  Law,  Elijah's  Ascent 
to  Heaven,  and  many  others.  The  design  is  often  crude  and  the  exe- 
cution rude,  the  juxtaposition  of  unrelated  scenes  being  the  usual 
procedure.  There  is  also  an  absence  of  true  perspective.  A  feature 
of  many  sarcophagi  is  a  central  orans^  or  praying  figure. 

Beside  this  stone  carving,  some  excellent  work  was  produced  in 
wood  and  ivory  carving.     Most  of  the  monuments   in   wood  have 


111)  Ruoff,  Oj).  cit.,  433. 


HISTORY   OF   ECCLESIASTICAL   ART.  99 

yielded  to  the  ravages  of  time,  but  a  few  important  examples  have 
been  preserved.  The  finest  work  is  that  shown  in  the  cypress-wood 
doors  of  S.  Sabina,  in  Home.  The  artist  employed  great  originality 
in  his  designs,  thus  rendering  the  interpretation  of  many  of  the  pan- 
els much  more  difficult  than  those  exhibiting  a  more  conventional 
presentation,  but  it  is  evident  that  he  wished  to  portray  the  principal 
scenes  in  the  cycle  of  redemption.  The  splendid  cathedra  of  arch- 
bishop Maximianus  of  Ravenna,  which  dates  from  the  middle  of  the 
sixth  century,  is  also  a  notable  example  of  this  work.  The  examples 
of  ivory  carving  are  most  interesting,  because  so  many  have  been 
preserved,  of  which  a  large  number  were  later  productions.  The 
diptych  of  Gregory,  at  Monza,  shows  beautiful  detail  work,  but  it  can 
hardly  be  said  to  surpass  the  diptych  of  Florence,  or  the  ivory  box  at 
Brescia.  Ivory  covers  were  also  used  extensively  as  coverings  for 
gospels,  church  books,  and  the  like.  In  addition,  there  were  marble 
reliefs,  pixes,  patens,  ampullas,  vases  of  gold  and  silver,  eucharistie 
doves,  altar  fronts,  and  ciboria. 

Of  statuettes  the  most  notable  is  that  of  the  Good  Shepherd, 
probably  of  the  third  century,  now  in  the  Lateran  Museum.  It  rep- 
resents a  young  man  bearing  a  sheep  across  both  shoiilders.  The 
statue  of  Hippolytus  dates  from  the  early  years  of  the  third  centtiry. 
It  is  evidently  a  copy  of  a  philosopher's  statue  of  the  classic  age,  and 
was  in  the  nature  of  a  monument.  The  celebrated  statue  of  St.  Peter 
with  the  Keys,  now  in  the  Vatican,  gave  rise  'to  many  interesting  dis- 
cussions. It  was  believed  by  some  to  have  been  a  statue  of  Jupiter 
Capitolinus,  with  the  later  addition  of  keys  and  nimbus.  Since,  how- 
ever, the  keys  at  least  are  an  integral  part  of  the  statue,  the  theory 
of  Gradmann  seems  to  be  correct,  that  it  was  modeled  after  an  an- 
cient statue  o:^  a  s«iator  or  philosopher.  This  first  brief  and  uncer- 
tain expression  of  Christian  art  lasted  only  to  the  seventh  century, 
and  included  the  Byzantine  period,  with  Constantinople  as  the 
art  center. 

Medieval  sculpture  is  often  reckoned  as  b^inning  in  the  eighth 
century.  But  in  reality,  sculpture  as  an  independent  art  remained  in 
eclipse  for  almost  seven  hundred  yedrs.  From  the  fourth  to  the 
eleventh  century  it  hardly  rose  above  the  level  of  industrial  carving. 
During  all  this  time,  the  church  made  use  only  of  the  cross  and  later 
of  the  crucifix.  The  examples  of  evangelists  and  saints  in  high  relief, 
on  portals,  doors,  altar  frontals,  etc.,  occasionally  show  glimpses  of 
genius,  but  usually  they  do  not  rise  above  the  commonplace.  Even 
the  dinanderie  of  the  tenth  and  early  eleventh  century  does  not  seem 
to  realize  its  possibilities. 

But  with  the  end  of  the  eleventh  century  there  is  the  first  inti- 
mation of  the  great  revival  of  sculpture,  which  made  "of  the  plastic 


100  HISTORY   OF   ECCLESIASTICAL   ART. 

art  an  integral  element,  a  logical  coadjutor  of  architecture,"  as  Ruoff 
8ays.^^2)  The  first  notable  examples  are  the  portals  of  St.  Trophime 
in  Aries,  those  of  Vezelay,  and  those  of  Autun,  where  not  only  the 
arches  are  finely  chiseled,  but  the  tympanum,  the  columns,  and  the 
fagade  on  either  side  show  beautiful  work  in  high  relief.  But  the 
flood-wave  of  architectural  sculpture  came  with  the  full  introduction 
of  the  Gothic  style.  Even  in  Notre  Dame  the  tympanum  of  the  main 
portal,  with  its  "Christ  and  the  Last  Judgment,"  was  a  wonderful 
sermon  in  stone.  And  with  each  new  cathedral,  Le  Mans,  Chartres, 
Amiens,  Auxerre,  Troyes,  and  others,  the  symphony  of  sculptural 
embellishment  rose  to  fuller  orchestration,  until  it  finally  broke  forth 
in  the  fulness  of  loveliness  and  dignity  in  the  Cathedral  of  Rheims. 
Here  we  find  not  only  each  portal  with  its  tympanum  and  columns 
decorated  with  sculpture  work,  but  also  the  buttresses,  the  galleries, 
and  the  entire  fagade.  There  is  a  nobility^  a  vitality  and  freedom  of 
style,  a  picturesque  and  effective  use  of  drapery,  a  multiplicity  of 
types  which  thoroughly  flout  the  idea  of  a  dead  formalism.  Single 
statues  have  been  chosen  from  the  great  mass  as  true  works  of  genius. 
''The  'Beautiful  Christ'  at  Amiens,  and  the  severer  one  at  Chartres, 
the  dignified  Virgin  at  Notre  Danie,  the  smiling  and  coquettish  Vir- 
gin at  Amiens,  and  the  rather  self-conscious  Grande  Dame  at  Rheims 
are  all  masterpieces."  ^i^)  j^  Germany,  the  Rhenish  school  was  es- 
pecially active,  producing  such  beautiful  work  as  the  sculpture  of 
Strassburg  Cathedral,  and  also  that  of  Cologne,  Nuremberg,  and  Ulm. 
The  statue  of  "The  Synagog,"  of  Strassburg  Cathedral,  is  famous 
for  the  natural  effect  of  its  drapery,  the  gracefully  bent  head,  and  the 
long  curving  lines,  making  it  one  of  the  most  poetic  figures  of  all 
times.  The  Daniel  and  John  the  Baptist  of  the  "Golden  Portal"  of 
Freiburg,  with  their  Byzantine  costumes,  are  also  often  mentioned. 
England  is  not  so  well  represented  at  this  time,  the  cathedrals  of 
Wells  and  Litchfield'  offering  the  best  work  in  Gothic  statuary. 
Sculpture  is  here  also  an  ancillary  art,  but  there  are  no  individual 
specimens  which  stand  out  from  the  rest.  On  the  whole,  it  may  be 
said  of  Gothic  sculpture  that  the  beauty  of  the  individual  statue  was 
sacrificed  for  the  architectural  effect  as  a  whole. 

With  the  thirteenth  century  came  the  rise  of  Italian  sculpture  at 
Pisa.  The  Pisani,  Niccola  (1205—1278),  Giovanni,  his  son  (1270— 
1330),  and  Andrea,  exerted  a  great  influence  with  their  revival  of 
the  antique.  This  classicism  is  especially  evident  in  the  work  of 
Niccola,  of  which  the  pulpit  of  the  baptistery  at  Pisa,  with  its  scene 
of  the  Nativity,  and  the  pulpit  of  San  Giovanni,  at  Pistoja,  are  par- 
ticularly notable,  while  the  work  of  Andrea  shows  a  marked  natural- 


I 


112)  L.  c,  433.  113)  Kuoff,  434. 


HISTORY  OF  ECCLESIASTICAL  ART.  101 

istic  tendency.  A  fine  example  of  the  work  of  the  Pisani  are  the  four 
piers  of  the  Cathedral  of  Orvieto.  Similar  schools  arose  at  Florence, 
Siena,  and  Naples.  With  the  beginning  of  the  fifteenth  century, 
however,  the  work  of  the  individual  artists  begins  to  stand  out,  al- 
though the  schools  do  not  lose  much  of  their  influence.  At  this  time, 
sculptured  altar-pieces,  pulpits,  choirs,  galleries,  fonts,  ciboria,  taber- 
nacles, candlesticks,  single  statues  of  saints  and  angels,  crucifixes, 
madonnas,  large  groups  of  statues,  begin  to  appear  in  endless  variety. 
It  was  at  this  time  that  Ghiberti  won  in  a  severe  competition  and 
cast  the  bronze  door  for  the  baptisteiy  at  Florence,  with  the  scene  of 
the  Sacrifice  of  Isaac.  He  followed  this  up  later  with  a  second  door 
of  such  beauty  that  Michelangelo  pronounced  it  worthy  of  being  a 
gate  of  paradise.  Ghiberti's  opponent  in  the  first  competition  was 
Brunelleschi,  the  builder  of  the  dome  of  Florence,  also  celebrated  as 
sculptor.  And  not  far  behind  them  came  Donatello,  with  his  Pieta 
(in  the  sacristy  of  St.  Peter's),  S.  Magdalene,  S.  George,  and  others. 
An  artist  noted  primarily  for  his  beautiful  work  in  terra  cotta  (white, 
blue,  gold)  was  Luca  della  Robbia.  His  Madonna  and  Child  with 
Angels  is  a  beautiful  lunette,  with  a  remarkably  delicate  tone.  Other 
artists  whose  work  is  worthy  of  special  mention  are  Jacopo  della 
Quercia  and  Andrea  del  Verrochio. 

With  Michelangelo  Buonarrotti,  the  Renaissance  in  sculpture 
reached  its  culmination.  He  was  classicist,  naturalist,  idealist,  all 
in  one,  the  greatest  artistic  genius  of  his  age.  But  with  all  his 
idealism  he  could  not  escape  a  brooding  sombeme^.  His  Pieta  at 
St.  Peter's  draws  attention,  not  so  much  to  the  figure  of  the  dead 
Christ,  as  to  that  of  the  mourning  Mary.  His  Moses  is  one  of  the 
most  impressive  and  overwhelming  statues  of  all  times,  but  it  repre- 
sents the  law-giver  only,  not  the  prophet.  His  David  has  a  vital  ap- 
peal, but  nothing  about  the  head  suggests  the  prophetic  singer  of  the 
coming  salvation.  When  Pope  Leo  sent  the  artist  to  Florence  to 
execute  the  fagade  of  San  Lorenzo,  he  remained  there  for  seventeen 
years.  But  in  only  one  instance  did  he  succeed  in  coming  near  to 
the  ideal  Christ.  His  statue  of  the  Risen  Christ  shows  the  figure 
after  the  resurrection,  nobly  erect,  clasping  the  cross  with  both  arms. 

After  Michelangelo  came  the  decadence;  the  humanistic  revival 
having  spent  itself,  the  Catholic  reaction  resulted  in  the  Baroque 
style,  also  in  sculpture.  Benvenuto  Cellini  was  more  of  a  goldsmith, 
an  exceptional  technician,  than  a  sculptor.  And  the  names  of  many 
other  lesser  sculptors  might  be  added:  Giovanni  di  Bologna,  Bandi- 
nelli,  Bernini,  and  others.  With  them,  as  Marquard  says,  "sculpture 
ran  riot,  exulting  in  its  technical  accomplishment  and  pushing  plastic 
modes  of  representation  to  the  furthest  possible  extreme."   A  similar 


102  HISTORY  OF  ECCLESIASTICAL  ART. 

criticism  might  be  expressed  with  regard  to  the  French  and  German 
monuments  of  the  Renaissance  sculpture,  especially  so  far  as  the 
Church  is  concerned.  Michel  Colombe  produced  St.  George  and  the 
Dragon,  and  Pierre  Bontemps,  Jean  Goujon,  Germain  Pilon,  Fran- 
gois  Girardon,  and  Antoine  Coysevoux  occasionally  produced  ecclesi- 
astical sculpture.  In  Germany,  Peter  Vischer  produced  the  beautiful 
shrine  of  St.  Sebald  in  Nuremberg,  and  Michael  Wohlgemuth,  as 
engraver  and  sculptor,  Veit  Stoss,  as  wood  carver,  and  Adam  Kraft, 
as  stone  carver,  deserve  to  be  mentioned.  In  the  seventeenth  century, 
Andreas  Schlueter  carved  the  beautiful  marble  pulpit  in  the  Marien- 
kirche  of  Berlin.  England  has  only  Nicholas  Stone,  who  executed 
some  work  for  Westminster  Abbey.  Altogether,  the  art  of  this  period 
was  light  and  graceful,  degenerating  later  into  playfulness. 

The  Neo-Classic  revival,  with  the  prolific  Canova  as  its  apostle, 
gave  a  new  impetus  to  sculpture.  And  while  the  art  was  now  devoted 
mainly  to  secular  purposes,  for  the  private  enjoyment  of  wealthy 
patrons,  one  man,  at  least,  turned  his  attention  to  some  extent  to 
Biblical  subjects.  Berthel  Thorwaldsen  was  the  son  of  a  carver  of 
figure-heads  in  the  royal  dockyard  of  Copenhagen.  His  talent  de- 
veloped very  early,  and  a  prize  won  at  the  Academy  of  Arts  enabled 
him  to  go  to  Italy,  where  he  became  a  pupil  of  Canova.  Here  he 
camie  under  the  influence  of  the  Hellenic.  But  his  plaques  and  other 
relief  work  also  show  a  quiet  independence,  with  a  romantic  coloring 
giving  these  efforts  a  peculiar  charm.  His  religious  works,  including 
a  colossal  group  of  Christ  and  the  Apostles,  St.  John  in  the  Wilder- 
ness, the  Four  Great  Prophets,  the  Entry  into  Jerusalem,  the  Angel 
of  Baptism,  and  others,  have  a  powerful  appeal  which  makes  them 
interesting  for  all  classes  of  Protestants.  Many  critics  pronounce 
his  The  Blessing  Christ  the  best  work  he  has  done.  A  spirit  of  di- 
vine dignity  and  loving  tenderness  seems  to  emanate  from  the  face 
and  the  entire  body,  causing  a  feeling  of  the  deepest  devotion. 

In  England,  Flaxman  worked  in  much  the  same  spirit  of  classi- 
cism. His  Michael  and  Satan  is  vibrant  with  power  and  energy.  The 
pose  of  the  figures  shows  supreme  triumph  on  the  one  side,  abject 
defeat  on  the  other.  The  presentation  is  thoroughly  admirable.  A 
German  who  deserves  mention  is  Dannecker,  whose  statue  of  Christ 
the  Mediator  has  a  realistic  touch,  and  may  therefore  be  lacking 
somewhat  in  dignity.  Ranch  was  the  foremost  sculptor  of  Germany 
since  the  Reformation.  His  historical  monuments  are  splendid  exam- 
ples of  the  highest  art.  His  one  noted  religious  work  is  the  group 
representing  Moses  with  his  hands  supported  by  Aaron  and  Hur. 
His  pupil  Rietschel  did  not  reach  the  level  of  the  master,  bu^;  his 
statue  of  Luther  at  Worms,  of  which  there  are  several  copies  in 
America,  has  fairly  made  the  great  Reformer  alive  before  our  eyes. 


HISTOEY   OF   ECCLESIASTICAL   ABT.  103 

.  Modem  sculpture  is  almost  wholly  secular,  as  recent  exhibits, 
especially  at  the  San  Francisco  Exposition,  have  shown.  Even 
Rodin's  Gates  of  Hell  and  Brock's  Eve  are  in  conception  and  execu- 
tion secular  products.  After  the  return  of  normal  conditions,  pos- 
sibly the  fact  that  large  churches  in  the  Gothic  style  are  now  being 
erected  or '  planned  in  America,  will  cause  a.  revival  of  interest  in 
ecclesiastical  sculpture. 


It  seems  that  from  the  very  beginning  pictorial  representation 
in  pigments  (painting)  and  in  colored  stones  (mosaics)  was  employed 
far  more  generally  in  the  churches  than  sculpture.  The  frescoes  or 
mural  paintings  of  the  catacombs  are  very  decidedly  under  the  in- 
fluence of  the  classical,  which  was  then  in  its  decaying  or  degenerat- 
ing stage.  During  the  last  decades,  due  principally  to  the  work  of 
Wilpert  and  other  scholars,  these  paintings  have  been  described  and 
reproduced,  so  that  both  their  execution  and  their  symbolism  is  bet- 
ter understood  than  ever.  The  cemeteries  of  Priscilla  on  the  Via 
Salaria,  of  Domitilla  or  SS.  Nereus  and  Achilles  on  the  Via  Ardea- 
tina,  of  Praetextatus  on  the.  Via  Appia,  and  of  S.  Agnes  on  the  Via 
Nomentana  especially,  have  yielded  works  which  have  intrinsic  as 
well  as  archeological  value,  although  they  do  not  rank  with  the  world's 
great  paintings.  At  first  the  purely  decorative  style  of  ornamentation, 
as  it  is  known  from  the  restored  walls  of  Pompeii,  prevailed.  Its 
purpose  was  to  give  to  the  subterranean  chambers  the  aspect  of 
pleasant,  home-like  surroundings.  Circles,  arcs,  and  geometric  fig- 
ures of  all  kinds  are  combined  in  delightfully  idyllic  vignettes.  In 
the  middle  of  the  second  century,  truly  Christian  art  was  developed, 
with  a  wide  range  of  Biblical  subjects.  As  this  was  the  age  of  the 
persecutions,  the  subjects  chosen  still  reflect  chiefly  thoughts  of  death 
and  immortality.  With  the  triumph  of  Constantine  in  the  early 
fourth  century,  a  new  trend  of  thought  was  introduced  into  the  art 
of  the  Church.  A  wider  range  of  subjects  is  immediately  noticeable, 
including  not  only  a  great  variety  of  symbolical  figures,  but  also  a 
wide  diversity  of  Bible  scenes,  supplemented  largely  by  apocryphal 
material.  Symbols  of  divine  deliverance  were  Daniel  in  the  Den  of 
Lions,  Three  Children  in  the  Fiery  Furnace,  Job  in  His  Sufferings, 
Deliverance  of  Lot  from  Sodom,  of  David  from  the  Hand  of  King 
Saul,  Peter  and  Paul  from  Prison,  and  others.  The  name  orantes  in 
a  general  way  applies  to  portraits  of  deceased  and  to  representations 
of  Biblical  characters  in  the  attitude  of  supplication.  Of  the  Old 
Testament  characters,  Adam  and  Eve,  Noah  and  the  Ark,  Moses, 
Daniel,  Sacrifice  of  Isaac,  Jonah,  and  Susanna  were  favorite  subjects. 
Of  the  New  Testament  scenes,  the  miracles  of  Christ,  especially  the 


104  HISTORY  OF  ECCLESIASTICAL   ART, 

Raising  of  Lazarus,  the  Woman  with  the  Issue,  the  Feeding  of  the 
Five  Thousand,  the  Samaritan  Woman,  are  often  found.  The  Good 
Shepherd  was  depicted  with  increasing  frequency,  as  in  sculpture, 
and  both  the  Celestial  Banquet  and  the  Eucharistic  Supper  received 
their  share  of  attention.  Of  the  purely  symbolical  figures,  the  fish, 
the  ring,  the  cross,  and  the  monogram  of  Christ  are  found  more  than 
others.  The  Virgin  is  gradually  given  a  more  prominent  place.  At 
first  she. is  represented  merely  as  secondary  figure  in  the  Adoration  of 
the  Magi,  but  soon  the  Annunciation  is  treated,  and  the  Madonna 
occurs  with  increasing  frequency.^i*) 

The  development  of  pictorial  representation  in  mosaic  work  fol- 
lowed practically  the  same  lines.  Mosaic  work  was  first  used  for  floors 
or  pavements.  It  consisted  of  figures  constructed  mainly  of  white 
and  black  cubes,  though  other  colors  are  found.  Geometrical  designs 
were  chiefly  used,  but  representations  of  birds  and  beasts  were  also 
employed.  Wall  and  ceiling  mosaics  were  more  rarely  used  in  the 
early  centuries.  The  lower  walls  were  often  embellished  with  incrus- 
tations of  marble,  cut  and  set  in  conventional  designs.  Toward  the 
end  of  the  third  century  glass  mosaic  came  into  use.  It  was  an  easy 
matter  to  cut  glass  paste  of  any  color  into  cubes.  An  interesting  form 
of  this  work  was  obtained  by  coating  the  cubes  with  gold  leaf  covered 
by  a  film  of  glass.  It  was  not  long  till  the  purely  decorative  purpose 
of  mosaic  work  became  a  secondary  feature,  while  the  object  of  edifi- 
cation, of  instruction,  of  devotion  came  to  the  foreground.  Some  of 
the  best  examples  of  mosaic  work  during  the  ante-Xicean  era  and  the 
period  of  the  early  Christian  empire  show  Biblical  subjects.  In  S. 
Pudentiana,  on  the  Esquiline,  there  is  a  bearded  Christ  enthroned, 
with  the  right  hand  lifted  in  teaching  and  an  open  book  on  the  left. 
In  S.  Sabina  on  the  Aventine  is  a  symbolical  representation  of  the 
Church  of  the  Jews  and  the  Church  of  the  Gentiles.  In  Santa  Maria 
Maggiore  there  are  figures  of  Adam  and  Eve,  of  Moses,  and  of  Joshua. 
The  Apocalypse  is  pictured  in  SS.  Cosmas  and  Damian.  The  baptis- 
tery of  San  Giovanni  in  Fonte,  at  Ravenna,  and  San  ApoUinare 
Nuovo,  of  the  same  city,  have  fine  examples  of  mosaic  art.  The  mo- 
saics of  Hagia  Sofia  were  of  such  remarkable  excellence  as  to  evoke 
poetical  raptures,  and  those  of  S.  George,  at  Saloniki,  were  also  strik- 
ingly beautiful.  With  the  passing  of  time,  the  mosaic  decorations 
centered  more  and  more  in  the  apse.  It  was  here  that  the  glory  of  the 
Godhead,  and  especially  of  Christ,  was  depicted.  Christ  in  the  Glory 
of  the  New  Jerusalem,  Christ  in  His  Majesty  as  Teacher,  Christ  on 
the  Clouds  of  Heaven,  Christ  on  the  Globe  of  the  World,  are  some  of 
the  subjects  found. 


114)  Cp.  Gradmann.  Op.  cit.,  14—24.  67*— 87;   Lowrie,  187—247. 


HISTORY  OF  ECCLESIASTICAL   ART.  105 

There  can  be  no  doubt  that  the  outbreak  of  the  iconoclastic  dis- 
cussions brought  the  early  Christian  period  in  art  to  a  close.  And 
when  Leo  III,  the  Isaurian,  published  his  edict  against  image-worship 
(726),  its  influence  was  such  as  practically  to  paralyze  Christian  art 
in  the  East.  There  were  still  fantastic  figures,  sacred  scenes  and  per- 
sonages, there  were  even  madonnas  and  saints  and  scenes  from  the 
Passion  and  from  legends,  but  there  was  no  spontaneity.  Everything 
was  steeped  in  the  dead  ritualism  of  the  Mount  Athos  Handbook. 
In  the  AVest,  conditions  were  not  much  better,  although  the  so-called 
barbaric  influence  of  Irish  and  Frankish  elements  gradually  gained 
the  ascendency.  The  age  of  Charlemagne  brought  a  revival.  There 
is  a  mosaic  of  Christ  Enthroned  at  Aachen,  there  are  mural  paintings 
of  considerable  merit,  there  are  many  examples  of  the  minor  arts. 
But  the  flame  whjch  had  given  such  promise  soon  died  down  and 
flickered  out.  Even  the  Romanesque  movement  failed  to  infuse  new- 
life,  although  a  few  specimens  of  painting  and  mosaics  are  notable  as 
going  beyond  the  designation  of  colored  drawings.  The  great  wall 
surfaces  of  the  Romanesque  churches  afforded  excellent  spaces  for 
mural  paintings  and  frescoes.  Such  subjects  as  Christ  the  Teacher, 
the  Evangelists,  Ezekiel,  the  Crucifixion,  the  Seven  Virtues,  the  Seven 
Vices,  occur  frequently.  The  ceiling  of  St.  Mark's,  at  Hildesheim, 
has  a  representation  of  the  Tree  of  Jesse,  which  became  a  very  favor- 
ite subject  in  the  Middle  Ages.  Wall  mosaics  are  practically  unknown 
in  this  period,  especially  in  the  North,  but  the  pavement  mosaics  are 
found  in  many  churches,  both  of  Italy  and  the  North.  Some  of  the 
subjects  used  are  David  and  Goliath,  Joseph,  Joshua,  Samson.  The 
mosaics  of  St.  Mark's  of  Venice  and  of  various  churches  in  Sicily  are 
particularly  notable.  S.  Maria  Novella,  of  Florence,  has  the  Madonna 
Rucellai,  painted  by  Cimabue.  During  the  latter  part  of  the  Ro- 
manesque period,  there  is  some  evidence  of  breaking  away  from  the 
stiff  soleninity  of  the  earlier  times.  Life,  freedom,  and  joy  are  mani- 
fested in  many  of  the  monuments,  relieving  the  dulness  and  unnatural 
coldness  of  the  former  age. 

The  full  awakening  came  about  the  middle  of  the  thirteenth  cen- 
tury. The  revival  of  mural  painting  in  Germany,  especially  in  the 
region  along  the  Rhine,  was  followed  by  the  rise  of  pictorial  art  in 
Italy.  Giotto  introduced  the  epic  style.  His  Life  of  Christ  still 
shows  hard,  impersonal  faces,  but  the  drawing  is  well  executed,  and 
the  general  effect  is  a  most  impressive  one.  His  figures  are  strong, 
solid,  quiet,  and  dignified.  But  his  perspective  is  poor,  as  his  Pieta 
shows.  His  influence  was  such  as  to  render  his  rules  of  art  a  canon 
in  Italy  for  more  than  a  century.  In  Florence,  Fra  Giovanni  da 
Fiesole  succeeded  in  infusing  a  spirit  of  tender  joyousness  into  his 
work,  while  the  school  of  Cologne  depicted  piety,  humility,  loving- 


106  HISTORY  OF  ECCLESIASTICAL. AKT. 

kindness,  and  enchanting  idyls  (Madonna  with  the  Bean  Blossom, 
Madonna  in  an  Arbor  of  Roses). 

The  Renaissance  had  a  wonderful  effect  upon  pictorial  art.  After 
Masaccio  and  Masolino  had  broken  away  from  most  of  the  older 
rigidity  and  attempted  a  natural  and  almost  realistic  portrayal,  and 
after  Hubert  van  Eyck  had  demonstrated  the  rich  effects  of  color  and 
the  results  of  excellent  draftsmanship,  the  way  was  opened  for  the 
Renaissance  proper.  Brunelleschi,  that  versatile  genius,  had  redis- 
covered the  art  of  i)erspective  painting,  and  this  enabled  the  artists 
to  combine  conventionalism  with  realism.  Fra  Filippo  Lippi  was  the 
first  to  use  the  faces  of  people  about  him  as  portraits.  In  his  Coro- 
nation of  Mary  he  even  has  his  own  portrait  in  the  extreme  fore- 
ground. His  pupil  Sandro  Botticelli  shows  traits  of  originality  and 
imagination  which  make  his  madonnas,  especially  that  of  the  Magni- 
ficat, true  impersonations  of  religious  feeling.  Ghirlandajo  was  a 
wonderful  technician,  but  his  work  lacks  the  solidity  and  power  of 
the  perfect  genius.  Filippino  Lippi  had  so  much  unbounded  vitality 
that  there  is  often  an  excess  of  movement  in  his  pictures.  Though 
he  was  also  influenced  by  the  dogmas  of  Savanarola,  he  lacks  the 
mysticism  and  transcendentalism  of  Botticelli.  The  dominant  note 
in  the  pictures  of  Perugino  is  peace  and  quiet.  All  his  madonnas 
are  humble  maidens,  with  a  complete  realization  of  the  glory  of  being 
the  mother  of  the  Christ.  His  compositions  are  graceful  and  his 
color  rich.  Padua  also'  boasts  a  great  artist  in  the  person  of  Andrea 
Mantegua.  He  gave  to  the  Biblical  personages  the  dress  of  the  Ro- 
man period  in  which  they  lived.  Wherever  he  portrayed  the  nude, 
his  figures  show  the  full  sinewy  muscularity,  with  a  sullen  and  silent 
expression,  as  in  his  Crucifixion  of  Christ.  In  Venice  the  Bellinis 
were  prominent,  Giovanni  Bellini  being  the  greatest  in  technical 
strength.  The  effect  of  his  pictures  is  solemn,  almost  sad,  but  he 
paints  feeling  only,  not  action,  as  in  his  Pieta. 

A  new  era  in  Italian  art  opens  with  Leonardo  da  Vinci.  He  was 
a  man  of  many  attainments,  a  mathematician  and  scientist  as  well  as 
sculptor,  architect,  and  painter.  In  all  his  pictures,  his  Baptism  of 
Christ,  his  Resurrection  of  Christ,  and  others,  he  shows  himself  to  be 
a  master  of  light  and  shadow.  He  founded  new  laws  of  composition, 
and  used  also  the  hands  as  a  psychological  commentary.  His  fame 
rests  principally  upon  his  Last  Supper,  which  is  a  psychological 
drama,  "the  grandest  monument  of  religious  art."  Contemporaries 
of  da  Vinci  were  Fra  Bartolomeo  and  Andrea  del  Sarto,  the  latter, 
as  the  best  draughtsman  of  the  Florentine  school,  being  called  "the 
faultless  painter."  Michelangelo,  the  great  master  of  sculpture,  was 
also  a  master  of  painting,  which  he  imbues  with  all  the  massiveness 


HISTORY  OF  ECCLESIASTICAL  ABT. 


107 


Si  _: 


108 


HISTORY  OF  ECCLESIASTICAL  ART. 


of  the  plastic  art,  as  his  Last  Judgment  and  his  series  of  Sibyls  show. 
His  very  opposite  was  Raphael  Sanzio,  a  child  of  sunshine  and  joy, 
"the  harmonist  of  the  Renaissance."  His  Burial  of  Christ  is  well- 
known,  but  his  fame  rests  principally  upon  the   Sistine  Madonna. 


ECCE   HOMO. 
Guido  Renl. 

The  beauty,  dignity,  and  grandeur  of  the  Virgin,  and  the  appealing 
charm  of  the  two  angel  boys  have  never  been  surpassed.  Of  much 
the  same  nature  was  Antonio  Allegri,  known  as  Corregio,  whose  ap- 
peal was  almost  entirely  to  the  sensuous  and  artistic.  His  Holy  Night 
is  the  very  essence  of  the  poetry  of  light  and  shadows. 


HISTORY  OF  ECCLESIASTICAL  ART.  109 

The  later  Venetian  school  produced  two  great  artists.  The  first 
was  Tiziano  Vecelli,  known  as  Titian,  whose  madonnas  are  conven- 
tional in  conception,  but  wonderful  in  execution.  Perhaps  his  best- 
known  picture  is  The  Tribute  Money,  with  its  characteristic  figures 
and  psychological  hands.  Seldom  has  the  irreconcilable  contrast  be- 
tween Christ  and  the  hypocritical  Pharisee  been  brought  out  with 
greater  force.  Tintoretto's  pictures  show  a  solemn  and  majestic 
splendor,  but  the  influence  of  the  Baroque  is  also  apparent,  as  in  the 
Miracle  of  St.  Mark.  Other  notable  Venetians  were  Giorgione  and 
Paolo  Veronese,  the  latter  a  "brilliant  colorist  and  a  decorative 
painter  of  the  highest  order."  After  him  the  decay  set  in,  and  though 
there  have  been  occasional  flashes  of  genius,  the  glory  and  grandeur 
of  the  Italian  golden  age  have  never  again  been  attained. 

All  the  world  learned  from  Italy,  and  therefore  the  results  of  art 
outside  of  Italy  can  be  summarized.  Spain  has  two  great  painters, 
whose  work  stands  out  from  all  the  rest  on  account  of  its  surpassing 
beauty  and  artistic  perfection.  Velasquez  represents  "icy  pride  and 
implacable  ceremony."  He  was  a  realist,  avoiding  conspicuous  color 
and  brush-work,  but  none  the  less  a  master  technician,  as  his  Adora- 
tion of  the  Shepherds  and  Adoration  of  the  Kings  show.  Later  he 
turned  almost  entirely  to  portrait  painting.  Murillo  was  a  master  of 
purely  artistic  achievement,  full  of  religious  fervor  and  sentimen- 
tality. His  Immaculate  Conception  is  a  charming  picture  of  tender, 
caressing  beauty. 

The  painting  of  the  Netherlands  is  divided  into  the  Flemish  and 
the  Dutch  schools.  In  the  former  school  Van  der  Weyden  and  Van 
der  Goos  are  the  first  notable  artists  after  the  van  Eycks.  They  were 
followed  by  Memling,  a  romanticist,  whose  Last  Judgment  is  well 
known.  A  little  later,  Quentin  Massys  worked  in  the  style  of  the 
Renaissance,  after  which  the  Italian  influence  gained  ground.  The 
greatest  Flemish  painter  and  one  of  the  greatest  of  all  times  was 
Rubens.  His  was  a  truly  sensual  art,  the  apotheosis  of  the  flesh.  His 
Hellenic  sensualism  often  becomes  fiery  sensuality.  Even  in  his 
Adoration  of  the  Kings,  his  Crucifixion  of  Christ,  and  his  Last  Judg- 
ment, this  feature  is  prominent.  But  he  was  a  master  of  technique, 
both  in  modeling  and  in  drawing,  with  an  artistic  grasp  of  his  per- 
sonages. His  pupil  Van  Dyck  became  prominent  as  a  portrait  pain- 
ter. El^iac  sadness  was  expressed  in  most  of  his  work.  The  later 
Flemish  painters  discarded  religious  subjects  almost  entirely  and 
turned  to  portrait,  genre,  and  landscape  painting.  Among  the  earlier 
Dutch  painters  Lucas  van  Leyden,  a  friend  of  Duerer,  occupies  a 
prominent  place.  After  an  interval  during  the  sixteenth  century, 
which  produced  mainly  portraitists,  a  great  painter  arose  in  the  J)er- 


110  HISTORY  OF  ECCLESIASTICAL  ART. 

son  of  Rembrandt.  He  was  a  master  of  his  art,  with  exquisite  taste 
and  correct  judgment,  very  skillful  in  the  arrangement  of  light  and 
shadow.  His  Holy  Family  and  Presentation  in  the  Temple  are  well- 
known  religious  works.  After  him,  as  in  the  Flemish  school,  came 
portraitists,  genre  and  landscape  painters, 

England,  due  probably  to  Puritan  influence,  produced  few  re- 
ligious paintings.  In  the  eighteenth  century,  Thornhill  painted  eight 
scenes  from  the  life  of  the  apostle  Paul  for  the  dome  of  St.  Paul's. 
Among  the  Pre-Eaphaelites,  Hunt  is  known  for  his  religious  pictures, 
which  are  carried  out  with  careful  attention  to  detail.  In  France 
the  case  was  much  the  same.  Nicolas  Poussin,  who  was  the  foimder 
of  the  classic  and  the  academic  in  French  art,  painted  scenes  from 
both  the  Old  and  the  New  Testaments,  with  a  careful  realism.  In 
the  last  century,  Delacroix,  in  his  Christ  on  Moimt  Olive,  is  roman- 
ticist, Ingres  classicist,  Delaroche,  in  his  Mater  dolorosa,  realist,  and 
Dore,  with  his  Bible  illustrations,  shows  the  same  tendency.  Millet, 
in  his  Angelus,  shows  a  pantheistic  tendency. 

In  Germany,  religious  painting  was  carried  on  with  varying  suc- 
cess, influenced  largely  from  Italy.  Some  of  the  earliest  artists  are 
not  known  by  name,  as  the  master  of  the  Lyversburg  Passion.  But 
Stephen  Lochner,  and  then  Michel  Wohlgemuth,  were  heads  of  schools 
with  more  than  local  fame.  The  latter  was  a  great  artist,  though  he 
approached  nature  rather  rigidly  and  coldly,  but  his  principal  fame 
rests  upon  the  fact  that  he  was  the  teacher  of  Albrecht  Duerer,  one 
of  the  world's  greatest  artists,  both  in  painting  and  engraving,  besides 
being  a  philosopher  and  a  poet  of  sorts.  He  is  the  father  of  post- 
Keformation  art  in  Germany  and  has  very  properly  been  called  the 
Leonardo  da  Vinci  of  Germany.  He  published  many  illustrated 
pamphlets,  whose  text  agrees  well  with  the  realistic,  rough  figures 
adorning  the  pages.  But  his  fame  rests  chiefly  upon  his  truly  Chris- 
tian art,  especially  after  he  had  come  under  the  influence  of  the  great 
Reformer.  It- has  been  asserted,  in  the  last  few  years,  that  Duerer 
was  the  original  cubist  painter,  and  some  of  his  sketches  seem  to  con- 
firm this  impression  at  first  glance.  But  a  study  of  Duerer's  letters 
and  of  his  diary  shows  that  these  sketches  are  the  result  of  his 
measurements  of  the  anatomical  proportions  of  the  human  body,  and 
are  not  the  miasmatic  contortions  of  a  diseased  mind.  The  best- 
known  series  of  Duerer's  is  that  of  the  life  of  Mary,  consisting  of 
twenty  separate  sketches.  Of  this  series,  the  Flight  into  Egypt  and 
the  Sojourn  in  Egypt  are  the  ones  most  frequently  offered  in  collec- 
tions. Other  pictures  by  the  same  prolific  artist  are  The  Prodigal 
Son,  Adam  and  Eve,  Adoration  of  the  Three  Kings,  Christ  on  the 
Cross,  and  The  Four  Apostles.    The  last  picture  especially  is  charac- 


HISTORY  OF  ECCLESIASTICAL  AET.  Ill 

terized  by  a  formal  simplicity  and  a  majestic,  statuesque  repose.  The 
other  artists  of  this  age,  Hans  Suess  of  Kulmbach,  Martin  Schaffner, 
Matthias  Grunewald,  and  Hans  Baldung  Grien,  never  reached  the 
eminence  of  the  great  master.  They  were  dominated  by  the  Italian 
influence,  instead  of  merely  permitting  this  influence  to  direct  their 
art.  Albrecht  Altdorfer  was  a  romanticist  of  a  peculiar  tyi)e,  who 
loved  the  portrayal  of  forest  and  nature,  without,  however,  using 
them  as  models  for  his  paintings.  He  was  master  of  certain  light 
effects.  His  The  Birth  of  Christ,  at  Bremen,  and  The  Holy  Night, 
at  Berlin,  are  pictures  of  peculiar  interest,  though  they  appeal  more 
on  account  of  their  romantic  touch  than  their  psychological  realism. 
The  artist  Lucas  Cranach,  the  painter  of  Wittenberg,  is  very  sympa- 
thetic to  the  Protestant  mind,  since  he  gave  to  the  world  the  portraits 
of  Luther  and  of  other  men  interested  in  the  Reformation.  His  style 
is  dainty,  sedate,  naive. 

The  Swabian  school  was  founded  by  Hans  Burgkmaier,  a  con- 
temporary of  Holbein  the  Elder.  Both  of  these  men  pale  almost  into 
insignificance  beside  Hans  Holbein  the  Yoimger,  who  represents  the 
culmination  of  the  artistic  ideals  of  his  age  and  is  considered  by  some 
critics  the  greatest  painter  that  Germany  ever  produced,  and  one  of 
the  greatest  of  all  times.  He  was  not  merely  skillful  in  design,  but 
also  decidedly  happy  in  color  execution.  Moreover,  he  had  the  faculty 
of  choosing  the  psychological  moment  in  a  story  and  of  portraying 
this  with  singular  vividness.  His  most  noted  series  is  that  of  the 
94  illustrations  to  the  Old  Testament.  His  realistic  portrayal  is 
tinged  with  an  ideal,  sometimes  almost  sentimental  coloring,  making 
his  characters  peculiarly  sympathetic,  especially  his  prophets.  His 
illustrations  of  the  New  Testament  are  not  so  good,  the  seriousness 
and  loftiness  of  conception  being  absent.  During  the  seventeenth 
and  eighteenth  centuries  Germany  produced  no  painters  of  the  first 
rank,  though  Elsheimer,  Sandrart,  and  Mengs  are  often  mentioned,^ 
the  last  being  noted  for  his  pastels. 

With  the  "golden  age"  in  German  literature  came  also  the  re- 
vival in  art,  ushered  in  by  Overbeck  and  Cornelius.  An  artist  that 
followed  in  the  footsteps  of  Cornelius  and  bucceedeid  admirably  in 
winning  for  himself  a  delighted  audience  throughout  the  Protestant 
world  is  Julius  Schnorr  von  Carolsfeld.  Although  he  painted  other 
pictures,  his  Bilderbibel  is  still  enjoying  the  most  enviable  popular- 
ity. Some  of  its  pages  show  the  very  essence  of  true  art.  A  woman 
artist  of  the  first  rank  in  this  period  was  Angelica  Kauffmann.  Wil- 
helm  Kaulbach  combines  refined  beauty  with  dramatic  effect.  Pictures 
of  his  that  are  well  known,  also  in  America,  are  The  Tower  of  Baby- 
lon, From  God,  and  To  God.    Ludwig  Richter  produced  the  popular 


112  HISTORY  OF  ECCLESIASTICAL  ABT. 

picture  Christmas  Night,  Lessing  Luther  Burning  the  Papal  Bull, 
and  Kethel  the  series  A  Mighty  Fortress  is  our  God.  Two  men  that 
are  enjoying  great  popularity  are  the  Protestant  classicists  Hofmann 


CHRIST    IN   GETHSEMANE. 
Hofmann. 

and  Plockhorst.  Christ  Taking  Leave  of  His  Mother  and  The  Con- 
soling Christ,  of  the  latter,  and  The  Adulteress,  Christ  in  Gethsemane, 
and  Christ  and  the  Doctors  of  the  former,  are  among  the  most  com- 
mon religious  pictures  in  Protestant  homes  and  churches.  The  last 
picture  is  considered  "one  of  the  most  beautiful  of  all  conceptions  of 


HISTORY  OF  ECCLESIASTICAL  ART. 


113 


THE    RISEN    CHRIST    AND    MARY    MAGDALENE. 
Tboraa. 


Kretzmann,  Christian  Art. 


114  HISTORY  OF  ECCLESIASTICAL  ART:  THE  MINOR  ARTS. 

the  youthful  Jesus,"  sharing  with  the  Sistine  Madonna  the  greatest 
popularity  of  the  Dresden  Gallery.  Hans  Thoma  has  worked  largely 
in  the  style  of  these  classicists.  His  Sinking  Peter  and  The  Risen 
Christ  and  Mary  Magdalene  are  known  as  favorably  as  any  religious 
paintings  of  the  last  century.  Eduard  von  Gerhard  was  opposed  not 
only  to  the  classicists,  but  also  to  the  Oriental  realism  of  Tissot  and 
others.  In  his  pictures  he  has  German  scenes,  German  people.  His 
distinctive  forte  is  the  singling-out  of  a  characteristic  expression  to 
typify  his  conception  of  the  psychological  moment,  as  the  joy  of 
Mary,  in  The  Awakening  of  Lazarus,  and  Christ's  greeting  of  the 
bride  and  groom,  in  The  Marriage  Feast  of  Cana.  Even  radical 
realism  has  its  able  exponents,  among  whom  Fritz  von  Uhde,  with 
his  popular  pictures  Come,  Lord  Jesus,  and  Suffer  the  Little  Chil- 
dren to  Come  vmto  Me,  is  best-known. 

So  far  as  America  is  concerned,  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  many 
portrait  painters  of  the  eighteenth  and  nineteenth  centuries  might 
have  produced  excellent  religious  paintings,  had  there  been  occasion 
for  doing  so.  As  it  is,  the  peculiar  position  of  the  Puritans  and  the 
Reformed  churches  in  general  with  regard  to  church  paintings  has 
done  much  to  discourage  artists.  At  the  present  time,  however,  the 
building  of  more  pretentious  Lutheran  churches  may  have  a  decided 
influence  upon  the  art,  since  it  depends  largely  upon  the  encourage- 
ment of  artistic  ability  whether  these  aids  to  the  edification  of  the 
congregation  be  installed. 


CHAPTER  9. 
History  of  Ecclesiastical  Art:   The   Minor  Arts. 

All  the  minor  arts  which  serve  in  the  embellishing  of  a  Christian 
church  are  merely  the  handmaids  of  architecture  and  can  justify 
themselves  only  by  loyal  service  to  their  mistress.  In  accordance  with 
the  demand  of  this  fundamental  principle,  we  can  devote  only  a  short 
chapter  to  windows,  dinanderie,  sacred  vessels,  furniture,  bells,  or- 
gans, sacred  vestments,  and  paraments,  though  each  of  them  in  itself 
is  worthy  of  a  description  which  might  well  reach  the  compass  of 
a  book. 

The  windows  of  the  early  basilicas  were  situated,  as  a  rule,  in 
the  clerestory  only,  and  were  small  in  size.  They  were  much  more 
frequent  than  a  later  taste  and  the  change  in  cultus  required  and, 
since  many  of  them  were  o-gen.  to  air  and  light,  the  interior  of  the 
churches  was  flooded  with  an  illumination  sufficient  for  all  purposes. 
In  many  churches,  the  small  windows  were  provided  with  hinged 


HISTOEY  OF  ECCLESIASTICAL  ART:  THE  MINOR  ARTS.  115 

shutters  of  stone,  as  a  protection  against  cold  and  rain.  When  the 
custom  of  closing  the  window-opening  became  general,  a  lattice-work 
of  metal  usually  sufficed,  or  a  thin  plate  of  stone,  marble,  or  alabaster 
was  inserted,  closely  perforated  with  small  openings  composing  an 
ornamental  design  or  pattern.  The  small  openings  were  often  filled 
with  clear  or  colored  glass,  but  this  practise  was  comparatively  rare. 
The  rays  of  the  sun,  having  free  ingress  through  the  small  apertures, 
assisted  much  in  bringing  out  the  effect  of  the  interior  mosaics.  In 
the  Byzantine  churches,  the  windows,  in  many  cases,  became  longer 
and  narrower,  but  there  was  no  attempt  to  change  the  former  method 
of  filling  the  opening.  The  windows  of  Hagia  Sofia,  as  originally 
built,  were  exquisitely  beautiful. 

When  the  large  churches  and  cathedrals  of  the  Romanesque 
period  were  erected,  the  decoration  of  the  windows  received  its  share 
of  attention.  Since  many  churches  of  the  Carolingian  age  had  used 
tapestry  for  window  curtains,  the  builders  made  use  of  the  idea  in 
inserting  glass  windows  with  tapestry  patterns.  The  small  Roman- 
esque windows  are  therefore  largely  mosaics  of  colored  glass,  for  the 
most  part  purely  decorative.  The  drawing  is  still  rude.  The  domi- 
nating colors  are  reds  and  blues,  enlivened  with  yellow  or  toned  down 
with  green.  Wherever  the  influence  of  the  Cistercians  was  felt, 
colored  windows  were  not  permitted,  but  the  builders  succeeded  in 
producing  very  beautiful  effects  in  the  so-called  grisaille  windows,  in 
which  the  bulk  of  the  glass  was  white,  studded  here  and  there  with 
jewels  of  color.  When  properly  executed,  the  alabaster-like  glass  acts 
as  a  splendid  foil  for  the  jeweled  insets,  producing  a  very  rich  im- 
pression. Figure  windows  also  were  not  unknown  in  this  period.  In 
the  dome  at  Augsburg  there  are  five  windows  showing  figures  of 
prophets.  A  great  artist  was  Wernher,  of  Tegemsee,  which  was  a 
center  for  this  kind  of  work.  There  are  also  fine  examples  at  Hildes- 
heim  and  in  St.  Remy,  of  Rheims. 

But  the  ''golden  age"  of  art  windows  begins  with  the  wide  intro- 
duction of  the  Gothic  style  in  France,  Germany,  and  England.  Since 
the  heavy  walls  were  no  longer  needed  to  carry  the  roof,  the  entire 
space  between  pilasters  was  available  for  windows.  It  was  then  that 
artists  realized  the  possibilities  of  such  large  surfaces  for  elaborate 
ornamentation.  From  that  time  on,  the  windows  of  Gothic  churches 
became  a  very  prominent  feature  of  these  beautiful  buildings.  Every 
device  was  employed  to  make  these  windows  works  of  the  highest  art 
in  themselves  and  to  have  them  serve  for  enhancing  the  total  effect 
of  the  interior  by  proper  gradations  in  color.  During  the  early 
Gothic  period  the  art  windows  were  notable  for  their  rich  color,  often 
of  a  barbaric  splendor,  in  reds  and  blues,  relieved  by  greens,  yellows. 


116  HISTORY  OF  ECCLESIASTICAL  AET:  THE  MINOR  ARTS. 

and  purples.  The  mosaic  character  is  still  prominent.  There  is  an 
example  at  Canterbury,  where  there  are  over  fifty  pieces  in  a  space 
of  less  than  a  square  foot.  There  is  vigorous  line  work  in  the  brown 
enamel  inherited  from  the  Romanesque  period,  laid  on  with  a  brush 
in  firm,  expressive,  beautiful  strokes.  The  figure  windows  of  this 
period  show  expositions  of  Christian  doctrine,  scenes  of  the  human 
descent  of  Christ,  especially  the  Tree  of  Jesse,  the  Virgin  with  Child, 
etc.  Some  of  the  best  examples  are  at  Canterbury  (Jesse  window), 
Lincoln  (Salome  before  Herod),  Sens  (Prodigal  Son),  Chartres 
(Christ  of  the  Apocalypse),  Cologne,  Strassburg,  and  Regensburg. 

In  the  second  Gothic  period  the  full  development  was  attained. 
The  artists  found  that  colored  figure  work  could  be  combined  with 
grisaille  in  the  same  window,  and  thus  solved  the  problem  of  lighting. 
The  heavy  iron-work  was  replaced  by  stone  tracery.  The  invention 
of  silver  stain  aided  much  in  securing  splendid  effects.  The  canopy 
in  the  upper  part  of  the  windows  was  developed.  At  the  same  time, 
the  art  of  drawing  was  improved,  becoming,  however,  somewhat  af- 
fected. Green  and  yellow  became  more  prominent  than  red  and  blue. 
The  subjects  remained  the  same,  but  were  carried  out  much  more 
elaborately.  The  best  example  is  the  window  The  Five  Sisters  at 
York,  which  has  been  called  "a.  shimmering  mass  of  pearl  and  silver." 
Other  specimens  are  at  Salisbury,  Rheims,  Westminster,  Exeter, 
Gloucester,  Cologne,  Oppenheim,  and  Freiburg. 

The  third  period  shows  the  effect  of  the  over-decorated,  flam- 
boyant style.  The  canopy  was  modified,  the  amount  of  silver  stain 
increased.  There  was  a  more  advanced  style  of  drawing,  but  also  the 
abandonment  of  the  natural  form  in  ornament.  The  immense  height 
of  the  English  perpendicular  windows  offered  great  possibilities,  but 
also  great  temptations.  At  Exeter  the  great  window  is  seventy-eight 
feet  high.  In  many  instances,  there  are  indications  of  a  gradual  de- 
cay, as  at  Great  Malvern.  In  France  the  limitations  of  the  art  were 
partly  disregarded,  the  attempt  being  made  to  apply  canvas  painting 
to  glass.  During  the  age  of  the  Renaissance,  this  tendency  fitted  in 
well  with  the  general  trend  toward  ornamentation  for  its  own  sake, 
and  thus  deterioration  and  decay  followed.  The  costliness  of  the 
genuine  potmetal  glass  caused  its  abandonment  in  favor  of  a  lighter 
and  cheaper  grade  of  uncolored  glass,  painted  or  enameled  so  as  to 
give  approximately  the  effect  of  the  colored  glass  formerly  used. 
With  the  revival  of  interest  in  the  magnificent  windows  of  the  early 
Gothic,  it  became  imperative  to  revert  to  ancient  methods  and  to 
employ  a  glass  which  would  compare  with  that  formerly  used.  Con- 
spicuous among  the  leaders  in  the  revival  of  stained  glass  work  in 
Protestant  countries  were  two  Americans,  Tiffany  and  La  Farge,  the 


HISTORY  OF  ECCLESIASTICAL  ART:  THE  MINOR  ARTS.  117 

latter  being  the  discoverer  of  opal  glass,  which  is  unexcelled  for  art 
windows.  Even  now  there  are  windows  in  many  parts  of  the  country 
which  compare  favorably  with  those  of  Europe,  and  the  art  is  but  in 
its  infancy  here.  The  possibilities,  therefore,  with  proper  instruction 
and  direction,  are  unlimited. 

Among  the  articles  of  use  and  adornment  in  a  Christian  church 
the  altar  has  always  occupied  a  prominent  place,  being  almost  indis- 
pensable where  the  requirements  of  the  cultus  are  observed.^i^)  At 
the  time  of  the  apostles,  the  congregations  made  use  of  simple  tables 
for  the  celebration  of  Holy  Communion,  1  Cor.  10,  21.  In  the  cata- 
combs, the  stone  slab  beneath  which  the  bones  of  the  martyr  lay,  was 
used  as  the  altar.  In  the  basilicas,  a  similar  form  was  in  use,  since 
the  apse  was  often  erected  over  the  crypt  of  a  saint.  Their  altars 
were  commonly  rectangular  stone  slabs,  resting  on  columns,  although 
cubic,  circular,  and  semicircular  altars  have  been  found.  The  col- 
umns of  the  altar  and  even  the  space  below  were  regarded  as  a  place 
of  refuge,  as  Synesius  reports.^^^)  The  use  of  wooden  altars,  of  much 
the  same  shape,  is  proved  by  early  texts.  In  the  sixth  century,  the 
practise  of  building  a  confessio  below  the  altar,  which  permitted  a 
view  of  the  relics,  became  general.  After  that  it  did  not  take  long 
before  the  bones  of  the  saints  were  deposited  under  the  altar,  which 
was  then  enclosed  on  all  four  sides  by  plates  of  stone,  thus  becoming 
a  mere  chest  for  the  preservation  of  relics. 

In  the.  first  centuries,  the  gifts  of  the  people  were  not  deposited 
on  the  communion  altar,  but  were  laid  on  special  tables  of  prothesis. 
Later  on,  not  only  the  consecrated  elements  were  placed  on  the  altar, 
together  with  cup,  paten,  and  linen  cloth,  but  it  was  made  the  recept- 
acle for  all  the  treasures  of  the  church,  which  were  there  exposed  as 
on  a  silver  chest.  Plurality  of  altars  is  not  found  till  the  fifth  cen- 
tury, when  lateral  altars  were  placed  at  the  chancel  arch,  and  after- 
wards in  chapels.  When  the  lectorium  became  prominent,  a  low  or 
lay  altar  was  often  placed  in  the  nave,  as  distinguished  from  the  high 
altar  in  the  apse.  When  the  idea  of  consecration  gained  favor,  port- 
able altars  were  made,  consisting,  in  many  cases,  only  of  a  stone  or 
bronze  slab.  Once  consecrated,  these  altars  could  be  used  for  mass 
in  all  places,  also  in  mission  work.ii'^)  So  long  as  the  altar  had  its 
position  at  the  entrance  to  the  apse  and  retained  the  characteristic 
table  form,  the  position  of  the  officiating  priest  was  behind  the  altar, 
facing  the  people.  But  gradually  a  change  was  introduced,  due,  first 
of  all,  to  the  ciborium.    The  ciborium  or  baldachino  was  a  canopy  of 


115)  Kliefoth,  Die  urspruengliche  Oottesdienstordnung,  I,  362.  422. 

116)  Bond,  The  Chancel  of  English  Churches,  Chapter  I. 

117)  Tavern or-Perry,  Dinanderie,  Chapter  XIII;   Kliefoth,  III,  275. 


118  HISTORY  OF  ECCLESIASTICAL  ART:  THE  MINOR  ARTS. 

masonry  or  precious  metals  and  drapery  above  the  altar.  It  usually 
had  the  form  of  an  inverted  cup  or  an  Egyptian  water  lily  (kihorion). 
"In  the  West,  however,  a  steep  conical  or  pyramidal  roof  seems  to 
have  been  more  common."  i^*)  The  four  supporting  columns  were 
set  far  enough  from  the  altar  to  permit  free  access  to  the  clergy. 
Between  these  columns,  beautiful  curtains  or  veils,  called  tetravela, 
were  suspended,  sheltering  the  sacred  elements  against  dust  and  the 
profaning  glances  of  non-members-^^^)  According  to  ancient  ac- 
counts, these  veils  were  often  of  wonderful  richness,  white,  crimson, 
or  rose-colored  silk,  beautifully  decorated.i^o)  The  ciborium  was  later 
replaced  by  the  tabernacle,  a  notable  example  being  that  of  St.  Peter's. 
And  finally  it  was  reduced  to  the  small  tabernacle  or  sacramentarium 
placed  on  the  altar,  for  housing  the  sacred  host.  But  the  essential 
form  of  the  ciborium  is  still  found  in  many  altars.  In  the  ninth 
century,  the  custom  was  inaugurated  of  placing  the  relics  of  saints 
on  the  altar  in  special  shrines,  which  usually  had  the  form  of  a  cof- 
fin with  a  separate  roof.  A  monument  of  this  kind,  too  large  even  to 
jtermit  its  being  placed  upon  the  altar,  is  the  shrine  of  St.  Sebald,  in 
Nuremberg,  cast  by  the  eminent  artist  Peter  Vischer.  This  custom, 
making  an  addition  to  the  altar  necessary,  was  provided  for  by  the 
so-called  retabulum  or  superfrontale  (Altaraufsatz,  reredos=ad  retro 
dos  or  dorsum).  Like  the  frontale  or  front  wall  of  the  altar  this  rear 
wall,  extending  up  over  the  mensa,  was  ornamented  in  various  ways, 
being  separated  into  compartments  or  niches  for  various  vessels, 
crosses,  and  candelabra.  The  reredoses  of  many  high  altars  on  the 
Continent  as  well  as  in  England  are  works  of  art  of  the  very  highest 
order,  as  those  of  Winchester,  Worcester,  Durham,  Lincoln.  Even 
when  the  relics  were  no  longer  placed  in  or  on  this  superfrontale, 
about  the  fourteenth  century,  the  reredos  was  retained.  It  was  at 
this  time  that  the  Gothic  artists,  especially  of  Germany  and  France, 
found  opportunity  for  the  most  elaborate  ornamentation,  since  both 
wood  carving  and  oil  painting  could  be  placed  in  the  service  of  the 
altar  builder.  The  three  panels  with  their  niches  were  no  longer  suf- 
ficient for  decoration,  but  the  niches  were  deepened  and  provided  with 
simple  or  with  folding  doors.  Both  the  outside  and  the  inside  of  these 
doors  were  decorated  with  statues  or  with  figures  in  high  relief,  and 
thus  different  sections  of  the  doors  could  be  exhibited  on  the  various 
festivals  (Fluegel-,  Klappen-,  Wandelaltaere).  Only  the  smaller 
churches  retained  the  simple  triptychs.  The  Renaissance  exerted  its 
influence  also  on  the  altar,  producing,  in  many  cases,  such  grotesque 
absurdities    that  the  name  altar  could  be  applied  to  them    only  by 


318)  Lowrie,  Op.  cit,  167. 

119)  Meurer,  Altar schmncTc,  31;  Kirchenbau,  223. 

120)  Rock,  The  Church  of  Our  Fathers,  I,  154. 


HISTORY  OF  ECCLESIASTICAL  ART:  THE  MINOR  ARTS.  119 

courtesy.^21)  When  the  Reformation  began  its  triumphant  march 
through  Europe,  the  question  of  abolishing  or  retaining  the  altars 
was  broached.  Carlstadt,  Zwingli,  and  Calvin  decided  against  their 
use,  adopting  a  plain  table  for  the  celebration  of  the  Holy  Communion. 
But  Luther,  always  conservative  where  there  was  nothing  essentially 
wrong,  merely  insisted  upon  certain  changes  and  modifications.  The 
plurality  of  altars  was  discontinued,  since  they  had  been  in  the  service 
of  the  mass.  The  shrines  and  tabernacles,  as  well  as  the  lamps  with 
the  "eternal  light,"  were  removed.  Otherwise  the  altar  with  all  its 
ornamentation  was  retained,  and  also  the  altar  paintings,  without  the 
slightest  suspicion,  however,  of  idolatrous  practises.122) 

Just  as  the  ciborium  was  erected  for  the  purpose  of  adding  dig- 
nity to  the  sanctuary,  so  many  churches  had  a  row  of  four  or  six  col- 
umns in  the  presbyterium,  at  first  for  ornamental  reasons  only.  They 
were  not  even  designed  for  the  support  of  curtains,  much  less  to  hide 
the  altar  from  the  gaze  of  the  believers.  Yet  from  this  ornamental 
feature  arose  the  iconostasis  of  the  Greek  Church,  the  screen  separat- 
ing the  sanctuary  from  the  nave,  adorned  with  various  sacred  pictures 
and  pierced  by  a  central  door,  as  well  as  the  rood-screen  or  lectorium 
(Lettner)  of  the  Gothic  churches.  It  received  its  German  name  from 
the  Latin,  on  account  of  the  fact  that  the  reading  of  the  lessons 
usually  took  place  from  this  screen.  It  has  now  been  replaced  in  most 
Western  churches  by  the  chancel  railing,  which,  according  to  Duran- 
dus  of  Mende,  "teacheth  the  separation  of  things  celestial  from  things 
terrestrial."  From  this  railing,  the  entire  sanctuary  received  the 
name  chancel,  which  is  often  applied  to  it,  especially  in  the  Angli- 
can Church. 

The  pulpit  has  an  interesting  history.  In  the  early  basilicas  the 
bishop  usually  delivered  the  sermon  from  his  cathedra,  which  was  an 
elevated  chair  at  the  eastern  wall  of  the  apse.  The  reading  of  the 
lessons,  however,  took  place  from  two  ambons  or  pulpit-like  platforms 
on  either  side  of  the  choir.^^S)  Xhe  northern  ambon  was  used  for  the 
reading  of  the  Gospel,  and  the  southern  arabon  for  the  recijing  of  the 
Epistle.  The  Epistle  ambon  had  a  special  platform  for  the  Graduale, 
from  which  the  sermon  was  delivered  as  early  as  the  fourth  cen- 
tury.124)  Later,  the  Epistle  ambon  was  moved  into  the  lectorium, 
the  dividing  wall  between  apse  and  nave,  under  the  triumphal  arch. 
It  was  then  that  the  rood-screen  became  identified  with  the  chancel 
railing  and  this  ambon  expressly  called  "Kanzel"  in  Germany.     In 


121)  Gradmann,  556;  Meurer,  Der  Kirchenbau,  226. 

122)  Kliefoth,  Die  ursprucngliche  Oottesdicmtordnung,  IV,  134 — 137. 

123)  Kliefoth.  I.  422. 

124)  Gradmann,  36;  Meurer,  Der  Kirchenbau,  210. 


120  HISTORY  OF  ECCLESIASTICAL  ART  I   THE   MINOR  ARTS. 

Italy,  the  mendicant  orders  erected  special  preaching  platforms  or 
pulpits  in  the  nave.  In  Grermany  and  England,  pulpits  for  preaching 
were  rare,  especially  the  fixed  or  stationary  pulpits.  At  a  time  when 
the  entire  interest  of  the  Church  was  centered  upon  the  sacrificial 
act  of  the  mass,  it  was  barely  to  be  expected  that  preaching  would 
receive  its  due  share  of  attention.  Italy  possesses  some  splendid 
monuments  in  altars,  notably  the  pulpit  of  the  Baptistery  of  Pisa, 
Germany  only  a  few.  ^eurer  mentions  those  of  Wechselburg,  Lands- 
hut,  and  Strassburg.  The  Reformation  brought  back  the  pulpit  into 
the  church  as  a  preaching  station,  and  it  insisted  upon  giving  to  the 
pulpit  the  prominent  position  it  deserves,  because  it  is  essential  that 
the  preacher  be  heard  and  seen  from  all  parts  of  the  church.  The  use 
of  the  lectern  grew  out  of  that  of  the  Gospel  ambon.  There  is  one  in 
Freudenstadt,  dating  from  the  twelfth  century,  whose  desk  rgsts  upon 
four  carved  apostolic  figures.  The  usual  type  in  English  churches  is 
the  eagle  lectern,  although  many  wooden  lecterns  were  carved,  with- 
out the  eagle.  Notable  examples  of  bronze  work  are  the  lecterns  of 
Notre  Dame,  at  Tongres,  and  that  of  SS.  Giovanni  et  Paolo,  in  Venice. 
Baptismal  fonts  have  been  employed  in  the  Christian  Church 
almost  from  the  beginning,  though  the  usual  method  of  administra- 
tion was  by  immersion  in  the  basins  of  the  baptisteries.  But  when 
the  baptism  of  adults  became  an  unusual  happening  and  the  adminis- 
tration of  the  sacrament  was  no  longer  the  bishop's  prerogative,  the 
baptisteries  were  united  with  the  parish  churches.  Since  the  ninth 
century  the  baptismal  font  has  been  in  general  use.  At  first  it  was 
so  large  that  the  candidate,  for  baptism  could  step  down  into  it.  Later 
its  size  was  reduced,  and  it  served  for  aspersion  or  pouring  only.  It 
was  situated  near  the  western  entrance  on  a  small  platform  within  a 
chancel  railing  and  received  a  cover  which  was  highly  ornamental, 
after  the  manner  of  tabernacles.  The  basin  itself  was  commonly  or- 
namented in  rich  geometrical  and  figure  decorations,  and  rested  upon 
animals,  sometimes  on  twelve  oxen  after  the  model  of  the  brazen  sea 
in  Solomon's  temple.  The  brass  fonts  in  dinanderie  work  are  in  part 
of  high  artistic  merit,  as  those  of  Liege,  of  the  Frauenkirche  at 
Rostock,  of  Hildesheim,  and  of  St.  Sebald,  of  Nuremberg.  During 
the  Gothic  period,  the  carved  stone  fonts  came  into  general  use. 
Those  of  England  were,  for  the  most  part,  conservative,  but  some  of 
those  on  the  Continent  were  carved  in  most  elaborate  designs.  The 
font  at  Reutlingen  shows  the  types  of  the  seven  sacraments,  with  late 
Gothic,  realistic  embellishments.  The  Reformers  with  iconoclastic 
tendencies  discarded  the  baptismal  fonts,  but  the  Lutheran  Church 
has  kept  them,  with  the  exception  of  those  that  represented  false 
doctrines. 


HISTORY  OF  ECCLESIASTICAL  ART:   THE   MINOR  ARTS,  121 

So  far  as  the  other  furniture  of  churches  is  concerned,  the  space 
of  one  short  chapter  is  too  limited  for  an  extended  discussion.  For 
there  were  so  many  subsidiary  vessels  and  structures  that  whole  books 
have  been  devoted  to  their  discussion.  The  pyxes  were  cylindrical 
boxes  for  the  host,  suspended  over  the  altar.  Many  monstrances  had 
the  figure  of  the  sun,  with  a  crystal  center.  The  reliquaries  were 
enshrined  in  gold  or  silver.  The  censers  also  were  commonly  made 
of  precious  metals,  as  were  the  croziers,  though  in  their  case  dinan- 
derie  work  is  often  found.  Of  the  same  materials  were  holy  water 
vats  or  stoups,  book-covers,  ewers,  water  vessels,  sanctuary  rings  or 
knockers,  and  other  accessories.  Pews  were  not  in  general  use  before 
the  Reformation.  In  the  large  cathedral  and  parish  churches,  the 
people  crowded  about  the  celebrating  priest  or  gathered  beneath  the 
pulpit.  Since  the  Reformation,  the  pews  have  gone  through  several 
periods,  ostentation,  utility,  and  ornamentation  battling  for  suprem- 
acy at  various  times. 

Church-hells  in  the  modern  sense  of  the  word  were  unknown  in 
the  early  Christian  Church.  The  faithful  were  summoned,  or  special 
times  and  hours  were  announced,  by  other  means.  The  Old  Testa- 
ment Church  had  used  trumpets.  Num.  10,  10,  and  the  Christians, 
who  in  early  times  had  made  announcements  of  meetings  by  word  of 
mouth  only,  after  the  formal  recognition  of  the  Christian  religion 
devised  ways  and  means  of  giving  loud  signals  with  metal  instru- 
ments. In  the  monasteries  of  Egypt,  trumpets  were  used,  in  others 
a  hammer  (malleus  nocturnus).  The  Greek  Church,  especially  of 
the  sixth  and  seventh  centuries,  used  a  wooden  instrument  called 
simantrum  (semantron),  and  one  of  iron,  called  hagiosideron.  .  Bells 
were  introduced  at  the  end  of  the  ninth  century,  becoming  great 
favorites  in  the  Russian  Church,  which  still  boasts  the  possession  of 
the  largest  bell  in  the  world,  that  standing  beside  the  Ivan  Tower  in 
Moscow.  In  the  West,  the  use  of  bells  was  adopted  at  the  same  time 
that  the  first  towers  were  built.  Very  likely  the  Roman  bishop  Sabi- 
nianus  (604 — 609)  was  the  first  one  to  use  bells  for  the  purpose  of 
serving  the  cultus.  The  use  of  bells,  suspended  in  special  bell-towers 
(campaniles),  spread  very  rapidly,  as  a  number  of  edicts  tend  to  show. 
Some  of  the  largest  bells  in  the  Occident  are  those  of  Ollmuetz,  of 
Vienna,  the  Maria  gloriosa  of  Erfurt,  of  Cologne,  the  Dominica  of 
Halberstadt,  of  Toulouse,  of  Paris,  and  of  Milan.  Unfortunately,  a 
good  deal  of  superstition  and  idolatry  was  connected  with  their  so- 
called  baptism,  and  this  caused  them  to  be  discarded  by  the  Reformed 
churches.  The  Lutheran  Church  discarded  every  appearance  of  lux- 
ury and  tolerates  no  superstition  or  abuse,  but  has  wisely  retained 
the  bells  for  the  purpose  of  calling  the  i)eople  to  services,  striking  the 


122         HISTORY  OF  ECCLESIASTICAL  ART:  THE  MINOR  ARTS. 

chief  hours  of  prayer,  and  for  annotmcing  deaths  in  the  congrega- 
tion.125) 

The  invention  of  the  organ  is  generally  ascribed  to  St.  Cecilia, 
according  to  the  legend.  TertuUian  names  Archimedes,  and  Vitru- 
vius  and  Pliny  Ctesibius,  as  the  inventor.  Originally,  it  consisted  of 
ten  pipes  pitched  according  to  the  tones  of  the  diatonic  scale.  The 
organ  was  in  use  in  the  Church  by  the  time  of  Augustine  and  Cas- 
siodorus.  Charlemagne  introduced  organs  north  of  the  Alps,  and  the 
art  of  building  these  instruments  soon  reached  a  very  high  degree  of 
perfection,  although  they  were  unusually  clumsy  from  the  modern 
point  of  view.  Wolstan  gives  an  account  of  an  organ  which  had  400 
pipes  and  required  seventy  men  to  pump  sufficient  air.  The  keys 
were  connected  with  the  valves  of  the  pipes  by  means  of  heavy  ropes 
and  were  usually  three  inches  wide  and  one  and  one-half  inches  thick. 
Since  the  mere  pressure  of  the  fingers  would  have  had  little  effect 
upon  such  ponderous  keys,  it  was  necessary  to  strike  them  with  the 
clenched  fist  in  order  to  produce  a  tone.  In  the  course  of  time,  the 
improvements  upon  the  organ  were  of  such  a  nature  as  practically  to 
change  the  entire  instrument.  By  the  sixteenth  century  the  mere 
pressure  of  the  fingers  sufficed  for  playing.  Splendid  and  costly  in- 
struments now  became  the  order  of  the  day.  Such  organs  are  at 
Danzig,  Harlem,  Rome  (St.  Peter's),  Weingarten,  Breslau,  Leipzig, 
Sevilla,  Birmingham.  In  America,  the  art  of  organ-building  has 
reached  a  very  high  degree  of  perfection,  and  one  can  hardly  com- 
pare the  modern  instruments,  having  thousands  of  pipes,  complete 
orchestration,  and  pneumatic  and  electrical  control  for  every  part  of 
the  mechanism,  with  the  organs  of  the  Middle  Ages.i26)  The  largest 
organs  of  the  world  at  this  time  are  the  following:  that  of  Grace 
Church,  New  York  City;  of  Yale  University;  of  St.  Paul's  Church, 
Toronto,  Can.;  of  Pilgrims'  Church,  Kevelaar,  Germany;  of  the 
Cathedral  of  the  Incarnation,  Garden  City,  N.  Y. ;  of  Royal  Albert 
Hall,  London;  of  the  Town  Hall,  Sidney,  Australia;  of  the  Cathedral, 
Liverpool,  England;  of  St.  Michael's  Church,  Hamburg,  Germany; 
of  Century  Hall,  Breslau,  Germany;  and  of  the  Wanamaker  Store, 
Philadelphia.  The  last-named  organ  was  exhibited  at  the  Festival 
Hall  of  the  St.  Louis  Exposition,  in  1904.  Several  years  after,  it 
was  transported  to  Philadelphia,  enlarged  and  rebuilt,  and  placed  in 
the  court  of  the  Wanamaker  Store.  It  is  by  far  the  largest  organ  in 
the  world,  having  five  manuals,  17,954  pipes,  and  232  speaking  stops. 

Special  clerical  vestments  have  been  in  use  in  the  Christian 
Church  almost  from  the  beginning.     The  example  of  the  priestly 


125)  Alt,  Der  lirchliclie  Gottesdienst,  63—70;   Kliefoth,  II,  415.  416; 
in,  221;  IV,  149.  126)  Cp.  Alt,  136—146. 


HISTORY  OF  ECCLESIASTICAL  ART:   THE   MINOR  ARTS. 


123 


garments  of  the  Old  Testament  probably  caused  their  adoption,  and 
the  classical  dress  of  the  first  centuries  of  the  Christian  era  deter- 
mined their  form.  The  tunica  talaris,  fashioned  after  the  common 
tunic  of  the  times,  is  represented  as  a  bishop's  or  presbyter's  dress  in 
a  second  century  fresco  of  S.  Priscilla.  This  is  also  the  garment  in 
the  case  of  the  S.  Hippolytus  statue.  The  dalmatica  was  practically 
a  variety  of  the  ungirdled  tunic.  It  was  usually  richly  ornamented, 
and  was  worn  over  the  tunic.  The  material  might  be  either  linen  or 
wool,  climatic  factors  probably  deciding  the  choice.     It  soon  became 


THE  VESTMENTS  OF  THE  PRIEST  AND  THE  HIGH  PRIEST. 

the  distinctive  garment  of  the  deacons.  The  paenula  or  casula  was 
originally  a  storm  cloak  of  heavy  woolen  cloth,  with  a  hole  in  the 
middle,  through  which  the  head  was  thrust.  Its  later  form  was  round 
or  elliptical  and  its  color  usually  a  chestnut-brown.  The  pallium 
scarf  was  derived  from  the  pallium  mantle.  It  was  made  of  white 
wool  and  ornamented  with  crosses.  In  the  East,  as  the  omophorion, 
it  was  the  badge  common  to  all  bishops.  In  the  West,  the  wearing  of 
the  pallium  was  soon  restricted  to  metropolitan  bishops  upon  whom 
the  pope  conferred  the  distinction.  The  stole  or  orarium  (peritrache- 
lion,  epitrachelion)  was  of  white  wool  or  colored  silk,  properly  a  neck- 
cloth.    The  maniple,  originally  a  napkin  or  towel  used  by  deacons. 


124  HISTORY  OF  ECCLESIASTICAL  ABT:  THE  MINOR  ARTS. 

later  became  a  kind  of  handkerchief,  used  by  all  classes  of  the 
clergy.127)  Jn  i)^q  course  of  time,  the  clerical  garments  grew  ever 
more  elaborate  and  costly.  Their  ritualistic  use  was  prescribed  with 
the  most  explicit  directions  in  the  missals.  The  well-known  litur- 
giologist  Rock  devotes  a  large  part  of  his  book  "The  Church  of  Our 
Fathers"  to  the  discussion  of  clerical  garments  and  ornaments.  The 
chasuble  was  circular,  with  a  hole  in  the  middle  only  large  enough  to 
let  the  head  of  the  wearer  go  through.  It  fell  in  folds  all  around  the 
person,  muffling  his  arms  as  well  as  his  shoulders.  The  dalmatic,  to- 
gether with  the  alb,  the  sacrificial  robe  of  the  deacon,  was  a  long  loose 
tunic  or  frock,  without  any  opening  in  front,  but  slit  up  below  a  little 
way  on  either  side,  and  its  wide  sleeves  reached  almost  as  far  as  the 
wrist.  The  alb  was  of  white  linen  or  silk,  with  brightly  tinted  silken 
or  golden  border.  The  tunicle  of  the  subdeacon  was  like  the  dalmatic, 
but  smaller  and  less  conspicuously  adorned.  The  offertory  veil,  about 
ten  feet  in  length  and  two  and  one-half  inches  broad,  silk-hemmed 
and  ornamented  with  gold  lace,  was  worn  by  the  sub-deacon  during 
mass.  The  stole,  a  linen  cloth,  nine  to  ten  feet  long  and  two  to  three 
inches  wide,  was  used  by  bishops  and  priests.  It  formerly  hung 
straight  dowTi  from  the  neck,  but  is  now  crossed  over  the  breast.  The 
gremiale  or  lap-cloth  was  either  of  linen  or  fine  silk,  flowered  with 
gold.  The  maniple  was  a  small  towel  worn  or  thrown  over  the  left 
arm.  The  subucula  was  a  vest  of  white  linen,  below  the  alb,  reaching 
to  the  knees.  The  amice  (orale,  humerale,  superhumerale)  was  a 
linen  collar  worn  during  mass.  The  surplice  was  a  modified  alb,  lined 
with  furs  and  reaching  almost  to  the  feet.  It  had  no  opening  in 
front.  The  rochet  was  a  modification  of  the  surplice,  practically  a 
linen  tunic.  The  cassock  or  pelisse  was  a  cloak-like  garment,  usually 
black,  only  doctors  of  divinity  wearing  scarlet  cassocks.  The  cope 
was  made  of  silk  in  the  color  of  the  season,  with  hood  for  protection 
against  bad  weather.  The  aimuce  answered  the  purpose  of  a  cap  and 
tippet.  The  pall  of  the  bishop  was  a  long,  straight  band  of  white 
wool,  marked  with  crosses.  It  was  worn  around  the  neck  and  crossed 
over  the  left  shoulder,  one  end  hanging  in  front  and  one  behind.^^S) 
These  vestments  have  been  retained  in  the  Roman  Catholic  Church 
from  the  Middle  Ages  to  the  present  time,  with  slight  variations  and 
modifications. 

The  Reformation  wrought  a  great  change,  so  far  as  the  Reformed 
churches  are  concerned.  Zwingli  declared  that  the  garments  used  in 
the  celebration  of  the  mass  were  essentially  wrong,i29)  and  this  view 


127)  Lowrie,  Monuments  of  the  Early  Church,  389 — 413;     Alt,  Der 
kirchliche  Gottesdienst,  126 — 128. 

128)  Rock,  The  Church  of  Our  Fathers,  I,  256—11,  104. 

129)  KUefoth,  IV,  305. 


HISTORY  OF  ECCLESIASTICAL  AET:   THE   MINOR  ARTS.  125 

is  held  in  most  of  the  Reformed  churches  to-day.  The  Anglican 
Church,  after  the  first  turmoil  had  subsided,  returned  to  the  use  of 
clerical  vestments,  modifying  them  to  some  extent.  The  Protestant 
Episcopal  Church  of  America,  in  the  section  with  high-church  lean- 
ings, prescribes  the  cassock,  cincture,  and  biretta  for  general  official 
wear,  the  surplice  for  all  services  other  than  Holy  Communion,  and 
the  amice,  alb,  girdle,  stole,  maniple,  and  chasuble,  for  the  celebra- 
tion of  the  Eucharist.i^'^)  Luther's  position  was  a  conservative  one. 
In  his  Formula  missae  of  1523  he  advocates  the  retention  of  the  cler- 
ical vestments,  but  in  such  a  way  that  luxury  and  ostentation  be 
avoided.  In  many  parts  of  Germany  and  the  Scandinavian  coim- 
tries,  the  ancient  garments  were  retained,  at  least  for  the  celebration 
of  the  Holy  Communion,  for  several  centuries,  and  the  use  of  the 
casula  may  be  traced  down  to  recent  times.  Gradually,  however,  the 
cassock,  which  Luther  himself  used  for  a  preaching  vestment  on  the 
9th  of  October,  1524,  for  the  first  time,  became  the  only  garment  used 
in  the  majority  of  the  Lutheran  churches.  The  collar  worn  by  the 
Scandinavian  pastors  and  the  bands  used  by  the  German  pastors  are 
probably  a  remnant  of  the  ancient  stole  in  the  form  of  the  peritra- 
chelion.^^^) 

The  paraments  or  liturgical  vestments  of  the  Old  Testament 
Church  were  prescribed  by  God,  both  as  to  materials  and  colors,  Ex. 
28,  5.  The  colors  were  gold,  blue,  violet,  scarlet,  and  white,  and  the 
•chief  materials  were  linen  or  byssos  and  silk.i^s)  The  liturgical  vest- 
ments of  the  New  Testament  Church  do  not  go  back  to  a  special 
command  of  God,  although  the  Mosaic  cult  has  been  cited  in  jusj;i- 
fication  of  their  use.  Paraments  have  been  employed  in  the  Chris- 
tian Church  since  the  earliest  times.  On  account  of  the  absence  of 
monuments  and  exact  descriptions,  comparatively  little  is  known  of 
their  materials  and  colors.  Veils,  tapestries,  and  coverings  are  men- 
tioned which  were  woven  in  the  most  elaborate  and  intricate  patterns, 
often  of  rich  silk,  in  white,  crimson,  or  purple.  But  the  custom  of 
having  definite  liturgical  vestments  did  not  find  its  ritualistic  fixa- 
tion till  the  twelfth  century,  when  Innocentius  III  authorized  the 
use  of  four  colors :  black,  scarlet,  white,  and  green,  basing  his  regula- 
tions upon  Ex.  28.  The  white  color  was  to  be  used  for  the  feasts  of 
martyrs  and  virgins,  red  for  the  festivals  of  apostles  and  martyrs, 
green  for  the  common  Sundays  and  festival  days,  and  black  on  days 
of  fasting  (Ember  Days)  and  mourning.  In  a  very  short  time  the 
fifth  color,  violet,  was  added,  which,  according  to  the  Roman  Missal, 


130)  St.  Mark's  Year  Hook,  Denver,  sub  Vestments. 

131)  Cp.  Lehre  und  Wehre,  .Jan.,  1918. 

132)  Cp.  Baehr,  Symbolik  des  mosaischen  Kiiltus,  I,  335 — 345. 


126         HISTOBY  OF  ECCLESIASTICAL  ART:  THE  MINOJl  ARTS. 

was  used  only  twice  during  the  year,  on  Laetare  and  on  the  Feast  of 
the  Innocents.  William  Durandus,  bishop  of  Mende,  has  a  detailed 
discussion  of  paraments  in  his  Rationale  divinorum  officiorum,  which 
agrees  almost  exactly  with  the  regulations  of  the  Missale  Romanum 
of  Pius  V  (1566 — 1572).  White,  the  color  of  innocence,  was  used  for 
the  festivals  of  "virgines  non  martyres,"  on  the  festivals  of  angels, 
of  the  Virgin,  on  All  Saints,  on  the  festival  of  John  the  Evangelist, 
from  the  vigil  of  Christmas  to  the  octave  of  Epiphany,  on  Maundy 
Thursday,  Easter,  Ascension,  and  Dedication.  Red  was  the  color  for 
the  festivals  of  the  apostles,  the  evangelists,  and  the  martyrs,  for  the 
Pentecostal  season  from  the  vigil  to  the  following  Saturday,  for  the 
commemoration  of  the  death  of  John  the  Baptist.  Black  was  used 
for  Good  Friday,  on  Rogation  Days,  at  masses  for  deceased,  and  for 
penitential  processions,  in  some  cases  also  for  Advent  and  Lent. 
Green  was  prescribed  for  ferial  services,  also  for  the  Sundays  between 
the  octave  of  Epiphany  and  Septuagesima,  and  for  the  time  between 
Pentecost  and  Advent.  When  violet  had  been  accepted  in  all  parishes, 
it  was  used  during  Advent  till  the  vigils  of  Christmas  and  during 
Lent  till  Maundy  Thursday.  There  has  been  little  change  in  the  pre- 
scribed order  to  the  present  day.^^s)  These  colors  were  used  not  only 
in  the  materials  for  the  covering  of  the  altar  mensa,  but  also  for  the 
antependium  of  altar,  pulpit,  and  lectern,  and  for  gremiale,  palla, 
and  bursa.  The  linen  cloths,  which  have  also  been  in  use  in  the 
Church  for  many  centuries  and  are  used  during  the  entire  year,  are 
the  altar  cloth  for  the  plate  of  the  mensa,  the  corporale,  upon  which 
the  sacred  vessels  are  placed,  the  velum  for  covering  the  sacred  ves- 
sels before  and  after  use,  and  several  smaller  cloths,  used  principally 
for  hygienic  purposes.!^*) 

Since  the  Reformation,  only  the  Anglican  Church  and  the  Lu- 
theran Church  have  retained  the  paraments,  though  individual  con- 
gregations in  other  denominations  make  use  of  rich  hangings  and 
tapestries,  and  occasionally  of  liturgical  colors.  There  are  few  Epis- 
copal churches  that  do  not  possess  a  full  set  of  paraments,  white,  red, 
violet,  black,  green,  and  also  the  linens,  fair  linen,  corporal,  pall, 
chalice  veil,  and  burse.  In  the  Lutheran  Church  in  America,  their 
use  is  not  so  general,  some  congregations  having  only  one  or  two 
colors;  but  the  movement  for  correct  liturgical  appointments  is  gain- 
ing groimd. 

The  earliest  Eucharistic  vessels  were  in  thorough  accord  with 
the  simplicity  of  our  Lord's  institution.  Cups  and  plates  made  of 
glass,  of  wood,  and  of  the  baser  metals  were  in  common  use,  as  a  re- 


133)  Strodach,  Liturgical  Colors,  9—12. 

134)  Reed,  Altar  Linen.  31—34. 


HISTORY  OF  ECCLESIASTICAL  ART:   THE   MINOR  ARTS.  127 

mark  by  Jerome  shows.  At  the  same  time,  however,  vessels  of  a  more 
pretentious  character  were  used,  and  soon  became  the  rule.  Even  in 
ante-Xicean  times,  gold  and  silver  vessels  were  mentioned  among  the 
possessions  of  many  churches.  Sometimes  they  were  even  adorned 
with  gems.  Gold  leaf  decoration  upon  glass  being  in  great  favor,  the 
use  of  such  vessels  is  found  in  some  localities.  The  form  of  the  early 
chalices  was  that  of  a  two-handled  vase.  The  patens  or  disks  were 
shaped  much  like  the  antique  libation  dish,  with  two  handles.  They 
were  often  ornamented  with  appropriate  symbols,  such  as  a  lamb  or 
cross.  Since  it  was  the  custom  in  this  period  for  all  members  to  par- 
take of  the  Holy  Communion,  these  vessels  were  necessarily  much 
larger  than  the  ones  now  commonly  in  use.  At  the  time  of  Jerome, 
the  bread  was  kept  in  a  basket,  but  later  a  special  vessel  was  designed, 
first,  for  receiving  the  consecrated  bread  that  remained,  and  after- 
wards, as  a  receptacle  for  the  wafers.  This  vessel  received  the  name 
ciborium  from  the  baldachino  which  had  formerly  sheltered  the  entire 
altar.  According  to  Gregory  of  Tours,  it  usually  had  the  shai)e  of  a 
dove  and  was  suspended  over  the  altar.  From  the  time  of  Constan- 
tine  to  that  of  Justinian,  the  splendor  and  costliness  of  the  Eucharis- 
tic  vessels,  especially  for  larger  churches  and  cathedrals,  defies  all 
description.  The  Liher  Pontificalis  is  therefore  usually  satisfied  with 
giving  the  weight  of  the  gold  and  silver,  and  the  number  of  chalices 
and  patens.  When  the  great  movement  of  church  building  during 
the  Middle  Ages  set  in,  the  Eucharistic  vessels  received  their  share 
of  attention.  The  great  decorated  chalice  of  Ardagh,  now  in  Dublin, 
dates  from  the  tenth  century.  When  the  Romanesque  movement  was 
at  its  height,  beautiful  pontifical  and  distributing  chalices  were  pro- 
duced. The  latter  were  provided  with  small  tubes  for  the  use  of  the 
communicants  until  the  time  when  the  full  withdrawal  of  the  chalice 
took  place.  The  Romanesque  cup  had  the  round  shape  of  the  Roman 
poculum,  with  circular  base  and  knob.  Beautiful  work  in  engraving, 
relief,  and  filigree  has  been  preserved:  This  was  true  also  of  the 
paten,  which  now  received  the  shape  of  a  plate.  The  ciborium  was 
shaped  either  like  a  dove  or  like  a  small  chest.  During  the  Gothic 
period,  the  paten  remained  virtually  unchanged.  The  Gothic  chalice 
is  slenderer  and  more  graceful,  the  hexagonal  base  rising  gradually 
to  the  knob,  which  was  ornamented  with  button-like  projections. 
The  shape  of  the  cup  was  that  of  the  hyperbola.  The  late  Gothic 
artists  provided  the  entire  base,  even  to  the  holder  of  the  cup,  with 
cleverly  modeled,  but  often  excessive,  ornamentation.  And  the  Re- 
naissance changed  the  chalice  to  a  secular  cup,  often  with  wide  flar- 
ing edges,  entirely  destitute  of  all  churchly  character.  In  recent 
years,  a  cup  with  an  egg-shaped  holder  has  been  introduced  in  Ger- 


128  HISTORY  OF  ECCLESIASTICAL  ART:  THE  MINOR  ARTS. 

many.  Eucharistic  vessels  in  almost  every  style  and  form  have  been 
in  use  in  American  Lutheran  churches,  even  such  as  have  been  mod- 
eled after  antique  classical  types.  In  some  churches,  individual  com- 
munion sets  have  been  introduced  for  supposed  reasons  of  hygiene. 

In  the  ancient  churches  a  large  cross,  usually  of  gold  or  silver, 
and  set  with  precious  stones,  stood  near  the  altar,  or  a  smaller  cross 
was  suspended  over  it.  After  the  fourth  century,  it  was  sometimes 
customary  to  have  an  engraving  or  a  relief  figure  of  the  lamb  on  the 
cross.  In  the  ninth  century,  the  crucifix  makes  its  appearance.  It 
was  used  at  first  mainly  for  processional,  benedictional,  and  devo- 
tional purposes,  and  only  in  the  smaller  size.  With  the  general  ac- 
ceptance of  reredoses,  however,  the  crucifixes  were  used  also  on  the 
altars.  There  are  some  beautiful  examples  of  crucifixes,  dating  from 
the  Romanesque  period.  The  Gothic  artists  changed  the  lines  of  the 
cross  decoration,  without  interfering  with  the  corpus.  In  England, 
the  crucifix  was  not  introduced  generally  till  the  fourteenth  century. 

About  the  time  of  Gregory  the  Great,  a  large  candelabrum  with 
the  so-called  Paschal  candle  belonged  to  the  equipment  of  most 
churches,  being  situated  usually  near  one  of  the  ambons.  With  the 
introduction  of  the  crucifix  on  the  altar,  candlesticks  were  alsa 
adopted  as  a  part  of  the  equipment  of  the  retabulum.  The  cross  or 
crucifix  being  in  the  center,  the  two  candlesticks  formed  with  it  a 
pyramid,  which  harmonized  especially  well  with  the  Gothic  triumphal 
arch.  The  Reformed  churches  have  declared  against  both  candelabra 
and  crucifixes,  although  a  resolution  of  the  Council  of  Zurich  (1524") 
still  permitted  their  use.  The  Lutheran  Church  has  retained  both 
the  candlesticks  and  the  crucifix,  defending  their  use  against  all  at- 
taeks,i^°)  since  there  is  no  sin  connected  with  having  the  figure  of 
Christ  on  the  cross,  but  only  in  using  it  for  idolatrous  purposes.  There 
can  be  no  denying  the  fact,  however,  that  the  plain  crosses,  as  they 
are  in  use  in  the  Protestant  Episcopal  Church,  have  a  beautiful  dig- 
nity, and  that  they  certainly  are  nearer  to  the  simplicity  of  the 
Canono-Catholic  times  than  the  crucifixes.  In  America,  the  Lutheran 
Church  uses  either  the  crucifix  or  the  cross,  and,  in  many  cases,  the 
seven-armed  candelabra  are  in  use  during  the  celebration  of  the 
Eucharist,  while  the  vesper  candlesticks  burn  during  every  evening- 
service. 


135)  Kliefoth,  IV,  33.  146. 


PART  II. 

The  Practical  Execution  of  the  Lutheran  Church  Building 
and  its  Appointments. 


CHAPTER  1. 
Preliminary  Considerations  and  the  Clioice  of  the  Style  of  Architecture. 

In  spite  of  the  fact  that  Riiskin  and  others  have  been  ridiculed 
as  foolish  visionaries,  if  not  as  dangerous  cranks,  the  principles  enun- 
ciated by  such  art  critics  deserve  a  far  wider  application,  especially 
in  church  buildinj?.  They  are  really  the  ideas  which  are  fixndamental 
and  should  be  thoi'oughly  vniderstood  by  architects,  builders,  and 
building  committees.  It  is  in  devotional  architecture  more  than  in 
any  other  branch  of  the  art  that  the  factor  of  permanence  must  be 
considered  a  prominent  and  guiding  principle.  This  will  demand  a 
spirit  of  sacrifice,  as  a  matter  of  fact.  A  mere  offering  of  surplus 
riches  does  not  argue  for  a  great  and  abiding  love  of  the  cause.  It 
is  the  willingness  of  a  greater  effort  than  the  customary,  habitual 
giving  which  is  required  in  the  erection  of  a  house  of  worship.  Where 
the  ardor  of  the  first  love  is  imabated,  the  willingness  of  the  Israe- 
lites, Ex.  35,  21 — 29;  36,  4 — 0,  or  of  the  early  Christians,  Acts  4, 
34 — 37,  will  be  found.  But  in  many  cases,  the  spirit  of  worldliness 
has  so  far  entered  a  congregation,  that  the  attitude  is  almost  like 
that  of  the  Israelites  after  having  returned  from  their  captivity, 
which  the  Lord  deemed  it  necessary  to  reprove,  Hagg.  1,  2 — 8.  "It  is 
not  the  church  we  want,  but  the  sacrifice;  not  the  emotion  of  admira- 
tion, but  the  act  of  adoration ;  not  the  gift,  but  the  giving."  136) 

Where  such  a  spirit  of  sacrifice  is  rife  or  can  be  aroused,  it  will 
also  insist  upon  truth  or  honesty.  Any  violation  of  truth  is  out  of 
harmony  with  the  ideals  of  Christianity.  Sham,  disguise,  deception, 
pretension,  whether  in  materials  or  in  workmanship,  especially  the 
covering-up  of  cheap  and  light  construction  with  ornaments  that 
suggest  stability  or  strength,  is  out  of  place  in  a  house  of  worship 
<ledicated  to  God.  "Readers  of  Ruskin  are  familiar  with  his  'Seven 
Lamps  of  Architecture'  and  the  emphasis  which  he  lays  on  the  'Lamp 
of  Truth.'  Ami  surely,  nowhere  else  is  truth  more  essential  than  in 
the  buildiifg  of  the  church,  founded  as  it  must  be  on  the  foundations 
of  truth.  Materials  that  lack  permanence  or  are  made  to  appear  what 
they  are  not;  structural  elements  that  are  not  simply  adorned  but 


nf))  IJiiskin,  .sVr^H  iMtupx  of  Architecture. 
Kretzmann,  Christian  Art. 


130  CHOICE  OF  ARCHITECTUKAL  STYLE. 

coucealed  by  ornament;  or  designs  that  falsify  in  their  details  the 
central  theme,  all  darken  the  'Lamp  of  Truth.'  The  stability,  reserve 
in  adornment,  and  unity  of  design  which  characterize  the  best  tyjie 
of  architecture  are  expressive  elements  of  truth  that  should  enter 
into  the  building  of  every  church.  Moreover,  to  be  true,  the  church 
must  be  churchly.  A  clubhouse  or  a  classic  temple  cannot  be  a  church 
in  the  proper  sense.  The  clubhouse,  at  best,  stands  for  worldly  com- 
fort and  entertainment;  while  the  church,  however  comfortable  and 
joyous  its  worshipers  may  be,  always  represents  an  order  of  ideas 
that  transcends  all  human  conditions."  ^^'') 

That  a  church  should  be  symbolical  of  power  is  a  requirement 
which  agrees  well  with  the  symbolism  of  the  invisible  Church.  It 
may  not  be  necessary  to  insist  upon  the  severe  and  even  mysterious 
majesty  which  Ruskin  mentions,  but  dignity  and  sublimity  will  do 
much  toward  expressing  the  possession  of  that  power  which  charac- 
terizes the  church  of  God,  Ps.  87,  1.  5 ;  Matt.  16,  18.  It  is  not  merely 
the  greatness  of  the  actual  dimensions  which  will  create  the  required 
impression.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  many  a  village  church  furnishes  a 
better  example  of  the  quality  of  strength  than  a  metropolitan  taber- 
nacle. It  is  compactness  and  solidity  which  express  power,  not  loose- 
jointed,  sprawled  greatness  The  whole  building,  or  at  least  its  prin- 
cipal lines,  should  be  seen  at  one  glance,  and  present  the  impression 
of  imity  and  strength. 

That  beauty  is  demanded  in  a  church  building,  is  in  full  accord 
with  the  qualities  of  the  Church  of  Christ,  whose  abode  the  house  of 
worship  is  fashioned  to  be,  Eph.  5,  27.  This  excludes  all  ostentation, 
every  effort  to  place  cheap  and  gaudy  embellishments  on  walls  or 
fagade.  It  demands  a  complete  harmony  of  all  parts  of  the  church, 
not  a  collection  of  disjointed  members  strewn  over  a  certain  amount 
of  square  feet.  It  eliminates,  at  once,  most  of  the  Baroque  and  all  of 
the  Rococo  construction,  as  being  out  of  harmony  with  natural  forms. 
Simple  lines,  simple  arches,  simple  ornaments  that  are  in  harmony 
with  the  central  idea  of  the  building,  will  make  for  dignified  beauty. 
"The  type  of  the  Romanesque  arch  is  always  before  us  in  that  of  the 
apparent  vault  of  heaven,  and  the  horizon  of  the  earth.  The  cylin- 
drical pillar  is  always  beautiful,  for  God  has  so  molded  the  stem  of 
every  tree  that  it  is  pleasant  to  the  eyes.  The  pointed  arch  is  beautiful ; 
it  is  the  termination  of  every  leaf  that  shakes  in  summer  wind."  i^) 

It  may  seem,  at  first  glance,  as  though  the  requirement  of  life  in 
a  church  building  is  an  unreasonable  or  a  imrposeless  demand.  But 
one  need  only  to  visit  a  church  where  this  principle  has  been  disre- 


137)  The  Brick  Church  and  Parish  House,  5.  6. 

138)  Ruskin.  Op.  cit..  101. 


CHOICE  OF  ARCHITECTURAL  STYLE. 


131 


TRINITY    CHURCH,    ST.    LOUIS. 
(Missouri  Synod.) 


132  CHOICE  OF  ARCHITECTURAL  STYLE. 

garded,  and  the  impression  of  chilliness,  of  death,  will  cause  a  feeling 
almost  of  repulsion.  The  Church  of  Christ  is  a  healthy,  living  body, 
Eph.  2,  20 — 22,  and  every  resemblance,  even  remote,  to  a  corpse  or 
dungeon,  in  a  Christian  church  edifice,  must  be  carefully  avoided- 
If  the  architect  causes  a  building  to  be  erected  which  is  a  mere  copy, 
or  if  he  has  not  grasped  the  fundamental  principles  of  the  style  in 
which  he  attempts  to  work,  or  if  the  execution  is  too  delicate  or  over- 
refined,  then  this  sensation  is  usually  aroused  in  the  visitor.  Some- 
times the  colors  of  the  windows  or  of  the  fresco-work  cause  the  same 
impression.  Church  architecture,  more  than  any  other,  must  be 
healthy,  brimming  with  life,  full  of  vitality. 

Even  the  lamp  of  memory  cannot  be  said  to  be  unessential  in  a 
Christian  church.  Since  it  is  not  a  mausoleum,  but  a  living  record, 
it  has  an  historical  significance  which  often  speaks  to  the  descend- 
ants more  plainly  than  the  written  document.  The  church  that  we 
build  represents  our  love  for  our  Church,  our  ambitions,  aspirations, 
and  hopes;  its  furniture  and  appointments  speak  a  language  which 
will  tell  later  generations  the  entire  situation  as  to  our  understand- 
ing of  the  essential  requirements  of  church  building.  It  will  tell 
them,  especially,  whether  we  have  penetrated  into  the  uttermost  se- 
crets of  the  adopted  style,  or  whether  the  style  we  created  was  an 
actual  spontaneous  expression  of  creative  art  in  our  midst.  For 
obedience  to  the  laws  which  have  been  discovered  in  the  past  and 
found  to  be  immutable  so  long  as  this  universe  exists,  without  slavish 
subjugation  so  far  as  definite  forms  are  concerned,  is  a  necessary  re- 
quirement in  those  who  would  erect  a  church.  To  become  expert  at 
adapting  without  adopting  as  a  mere  copyist,  that  is  true  obedience. 

It  is  in  full  conformity  with  these  principles  that  Kidder  writes : 
"In  the  first  place,  a  church  is  supposed  to  be  a  temple,  erected  by 
man  to  the  glory  of  God  and  for  the  observance  of  religious  services 
and  the  spreading  of  His  Word.  The  aim  of  the  architect  and  of  the 
church  body  should  therefore  be  to  express  this  purpose  as  clearly 
and  distinctly  as  may  lie  in  their  ability,  while  at  the  same  time 
providing  suitable  arrangements  for  the  church  services  and  conveni- 
ences for  such  charitable  and  social  work  as  the  church  may  under- 
take. .  .  .  When  erecting  a  habitation  for  the  Most  High  God,  the 
church  should  not  be  niggardly  in  its  expense,  but  should  feel  that 
nothing  is  too  magnificent  for  an  offering  to  the  Lord,  1  Chron.  22, 

5 The  work  should  be  entered  upon  in  a  spirit  of  reverence  and 

love,  and  with  a  desire  to  build  pleasing  in  the  sight  of  God.  No 
shams  or  subterfuges  of  construction  should  be  permitted.  The 
building,  above  all,  should  be  honest,  truthful,  even  if  it  must 
be  plain."  139) 


139)  Churches  and  Chapels,  11.  12. 


CHOICE  OF  ARCHITECTURAL  STYLE.  133 

A  fundamental  requirement,  when  a  church  building  is  contem- 
plated, is  this  that  the  house,  as  planned,  actually  serve  the  purpose 
for  which  it  is  intended.  Any  accomplishment  of  talent  or  genius 
does  not  measure  up  to  the  standard  of  a  work  of  art  unless  this  de- 
mand is  complied  with.  "A  Christian  church  building  must  express 
the  idea  of  the  Christian  service  and  serve  its  purposes,  as  a  whole  as 
well  as  in  all  its  parts."  '^*'^)     There  are  three  purposes  which  a  Chris- 


ST.   PAULS   CHURCH,    FT.    WAYNE,   IND. 
(Missouri  Synod.) 

tian,  and  especially  a  Lutheran,  church  is  to  serve.  It  is  intended, 
first  of  all,  as  a  house  where  the  Gospel  of  Jesus  Christ  is  to  be 
preached.  The  Lutheran  Church  has  every  reason  for  the  proud 
boast  that  she  is  the  Church  of  the  Word.  The  proclaiming  of  this 
Word  marks  the  culmination  of  the  service.  Matt.  28,  19.  20 ;  John  8, 
47a.  "Where  the  Word  of  God  is  not  preached  it  is  far  better  neither 
to  sing  nor  to  read  nor  to  come  together.  The  greatest  and  most 
important  part  of  all  service  is  to  preach  and  teach  God's  Word."  i*^) 


140)  Meurer,  Der  Kirehenbati,  101. 

141)  Luther,  quoted  in  Schultze,  />«*  eran^eUwhe  Kirchengehaeude,  23. 


134  CHOICE  OF  ARCHITECTURAL  STYLE. 

If  a  Lutheran  church  is  built  without  keeping  this  demand  in  mind, 
it  is  neither  a  work  of  art  nor  a  church,  properly  speaking.  It  may, 
under  circumstances,  serve  to  stimulate  devotion  by  other  means,  but 
it  has  no  reason  for  existing  as  church.  Closely  connected  with  this 
requirement  is  this  that  the  Sacraments  may  be  administered  prop- 
erly. They  really  represent  the  application  of  the  spoken  Word  by 
visible  elements,  "the  Sacrament  itself  being  made  and  blessed  and 
hallowed  by  the  Word  of  God."  The  Word  is  thus  brought  to  the  at- 
tention of  the  congregation  in  the  sermon,  in  the  liturgical  lessons, 
in  the  absolution,  in  the.  benediction,  and  in  the  sacraments.  "The 
architect  shovdd  therefore  primarily  keep  in  mind  the  majesty  of  the 
Word  of  God,  as  read  from  Scriptures,  but  then  also  the  uncondi- 
tional demand  of  the  cultus  of  admonition  and  free  exposition  of  the 
Word  of  God  through  the  preacher,  and  therefore  subordinate  his 
thoughts  absolutely  under  this  conception  of  the  divine  Word.  With 
his  entire  artistic  ability  he  must  vouch  for  the  most  perfect  audibil- 
ity of  the  divine  Word."  ^^2)  As  these  two  requirements  represent 
the  sacramental  acts  of  the  cultus,  so  the  third  consideration  expresses 
the  sacrificial  act  of  the  service.  For  the  church  is  also  the  place  of 
prayer.  Not  with  that  emphasis,  indeed,  which  Meurer  places  upon 
this  factor  with  reference  to  Matt.  21,  12.  The  hearing  of  the  Word 
of  God  in  the  sacramental  part  of  the  services  comes  first.  But  the 
congregation  is  also  active,  not  merely  by  a  silent  participation  in 
the  liturgical  prayers,  but  also  by  the  singing  of  the  beautiful  Lu- 
theran hymns,  many  of  which  are  true  votive  offerings  before  the 
throne  of  grace.  The  Reformation  has  given  the  hymnbook  into  the 
hands  of  the  Lutheran  congregations,  and  the  Lutheran  Church 
Ijroudly  calls  itself  the  "singing  Church."  Therefore  this  sacrificial 
part  of  the  service  must  be  borne  in  mind  very  carefully  and  provi- 
sion made  that  it  receive  due  consideration  in  the  erection  of  every 
Lutheran  church  building. 

But  not  only  must  the  object  of  a  church  edifice  in  general,  and 
that  of  a  Lutheran  church  building  in  particular,  be  observed  with 
such  care,  but  there  are  also  certain  historical  considerations  which 
cannot  be  ignored.  The  Lutheran  Church  is  a  product  of  reforma- 
tion, not  revolution,  and  therefore  its  church  buildings  should  con- 
tinue conservative  traditions,  purging,  whenever  it  seems  necessary, 
but  only  of  actual  idolatrous  and  superstitious  Roman  Catholic  cus- 
toms. There  is  no  reason  for  the  attempted  creation  of  a  so-called 
new  style,  and  all  efforts  to  that  effect  deserve  to  be  abortive.  Luther 
and  his  colleagues,  as  well  as  the  leaders  of  the  Lutheran  Church 
throughout  Germany  (when  there  was  still  a  Lutheran  Church  in 


142)  Lechler.  quoted  in  Schultze.  23. 


CHOICE  OF  ARCHITECTURAL  STYLE. 


135 


Germany)  had  no  hesitation  about  using  the  church  buildings  as 
they  found  them.  Whether  ecclesiastical  architecture  will  ever  suc- 
ceed in  evolving  a  new,  perfect  style,  which  will  adequately  express 
the  ideas  of  the  Lutheran  cultus  and  all  its  demands,  is  a  question 
which  has  not  been  solved  as  yet,  in  spite  of  sporadic  outbursts  of 
misguided  enthusiasts.  In  no  case  may  a  Lutheran  church  be  sub- 
jected to  the  arbitrary  whims  of  an  experimenting  architect.i*^)  "The 
Christian  character  of  a  Lutheran  church  building  demands  the  use 


,-■■■■ '"«^^^aw.>vr 

ST.   PAULUS  CHURCH,   SAN  FRANCISCO. 
(Missouri  Synod.) 

of  one  of  the  historically  developed  Christian  styles  of  architecture," 
says  Mothes,  in  bis  notes  on  the  Eisenach  Regulative.^*^) 

It  is  necessary  that  the  character  of  a  Lutheran  church  edifice 
be  expressed  by  every  part  of  the  building,  both  exterior  and  interior. 
"It  should  be  distinguished  from  buildings  for  profane  purposes,  and 
also  from  the  temples  of  other  religious  confessions.  The  chief  form 
should  witness  that  the  building  serves  no  small,  but  the  greatest 
purpose,  no  passing  end,  but  an  eternal,  no  material  use,  but  an  ideal, 


143)  Schultze,  Das  evangelische  Kirchengebaeude,  26. 

144)  Horn,  Lutheran  Principles  of  Church  Architecture,  85. 


136  CHOICE  OF  ARCHITECTURAL  STYLE. 

no  worldly  aim,  but  a  spiritual,  no  lowly  purpose,  but  the  very  highest ; 
that  it  belongs  to  no  person,  but  to  the  whole  congregation,  invites 
the  whole  congregation  to  enter,  take  part  in  assembly,  prayer,  praise, 
illumination  through  pure  doctrine,  in  short,  to  the  adoration  of  God 
and  exaltation  to  Him;  but  also  that  the  chief  principle  of  the  wor- 
ship celebrated  in  it  in  evangelical  freedom  is  embraced  in  the  notions 
of  congregational  assembly,  common  hearing  of  the  Word,  thanks- 
giving for  Christ's  Word  of  redemption,  reception  of  the  gifts  of 
His  grace,  and  therefore  has  nothing  to  do  with  processions,  the  sac- 
rifice of  the  mass,  and  other  mystical  ceremonies,  the  worship  of  the 
saints,  etc.  For  such  a  witness  the  building  needs,  primarily,  earnest- 
ness and  dignity  of  appearance,  great  simple  masses,  even  with  mod- 
est additions  and  wide  organization  of  members,  an  ideal  form, 
aspiring  relations,  avoidance  of  forms  which  are  subject  to  passing 
fashion,  declaration  and  awakening  of  assurance  of  long  continuance 
by  means  of  solidity,  external  signification  of  inner  sanctity  by  great 
windows,  and  a  broad  entrance  under  a  tower  rising  up  towards 
heaven.  In  all,  in  every  particular,  in  every  part,  mass,  and  form, 
the  exterior  should  render  the  inner  purpose,  that  inner  organization 
in  ante-chamber,  congregational  space,  and  altar  space,  and  their 
unified  combination,  visible.  On  the  room  of  the  congregation  should 
be  impressed  the  character  of  rest  and  quietness;  on  the  altar  space 
of  motion,  of  aspiration,  without  interfering  with  the  artistic  unity. 
But  everything  that  might  remind  one  of  a  mystery,  of  the  advance 
of  a  procession,  of  the  separation  of  the  priesthood  from  the  laity  in 
contradiction  of  the  universal  priesthood  of  the  congregation,  or  of 
adoration  of  the  saints,  is  to  be  strictly  avoided."  ^^5)  Moreover,  the 
specifically  Lutheran  characteristics  should  appear  in  a  Lutheran 
church  building.  These  requirements  are  stated  by  Horn  as  follows: 
"A  Lutheran  chvirch  differs  from  a  Roman  Catholic  church,  1.  in  hav- 
ing but  one  altar;  2.  in  making  due  provision  for  the  preaching  of 
the  Word ;  3.  in  providing  that  the  whole  congregation  may  intelli- 
gently take  part  in  the  whole  service  of  worship ;  4.  in  not  making  a 
separation  between  a  'clergy'  and  a  'laity' ;  5.  in  providing  for  the 
communion  of  the  people,  instead  of  a  celebration  of  the  Sacrament; 
6.  in  arranging  for  a  service  whose  reality  depends  on  the  presence 
and  participation  of  the  congregation.  On  the  other  hand,  the  sanc- 
tity of  a  Roman  Catholic  church  is  guaranteed  by  the  supposed  pres- 
ence of  Christ  upon  the  altar,  and  the  consecration  of  the  church. 
A  Lutheran  church  differs  from  a  non-Lutheran  Protestant  church 
because  in  the  former  1.  Christ  is  present  in  His  Word  and  Sacra- 
ments, through  them  speaks  to  us,  and  through  them  imparts  Him- 


14.5)   Mothes,  quoted  in  Horn,  109.  110. 


CHOICE  OF  ARCHITECTURAL  STYLE. 


137 


self  to  us;  2.  and  the  Holy  Communion  is  not  merely  a  mark  of  the. 
confession  and  communion  of  the  people,  but  is  a  Sacrament."  i*^) 
There  are  other  differences  which  fix  the  character  of  a  Lutheran 
church  very  definitely,  some  of  a  doctrinal,  some  of  a  liturgical  na- 
ture, most  of  which  will  be  touched  upon  in  subsequent  paragraphs. 


ST.    MARCUS,    MILWAUKEE. 
(Wisconsin  Synod.) 

There  are  thus  certain  demands  of  history  and  historical  tradition 
which  cannot  be  ignored. 

But  if  the  proper  historical  considerations  are  to  be  observed, 
there  is  another  factor  which  cannot  be  considered  a  matter  of  indif- 
ference, namely  the  orientation  of  a  Lutheran  church  building  in 
such  a  way  that  in  the  axis  of  the  structure  the  altar  is  given  its 


146)  Lutheran  Principles  of  Church  Architecture,  79.  80. 


138  CHOICE  OF  ARCHITECTURAL  STYLE. 

place  in  the  east  end,  while  the  main  portal  is  on  the  west  end.  It  is 
a  custom  which  has  been  observed  in  the  Christian  Church  since 
about  420  A.  D.  It  is  not  a  remnant  of  pagan  demonolatry,  as  a 
modern  writer  has  asserted.  The  heathen  temples,  as  a  rule,  had 
their  main  portals  facing  the  rising  sun.  The  same  orientation  was 
employed  in  the  temple  at  Jerusalem.  And  it  is  also  true  that  most 
Jesuit  churches,  at  least  in  Germany,  have  their  altars  in  the  west 
end  of  the  church.  Why  not,  then,  as  a  distinctive  mark,  follow  the 
Canono-Catholic  custom,  which  has  such  a  fine  symbolism?  Ex 
oriente  lux!  Christ  arose  with  the  rising  sun.  Out  of  the  East  came 
the  glory  of  the  Gospel  of  the  Savior  to  the  entire  West.  Therefore 
the  Christian  congregation  faces  the  East,  where  the  heavenly  Sun, 
the  Siui  of  Righteousness,  arose.  There  is  also  a  practical  reason  for 
this  orientation,  since  the  chief  service  takes  place  in  the  morning, 
and  again,  that  it  is  uplifting  to  look  towards  the  East.i^'^)  "The 
orientation  of  the  church  building,  which  has  been  fixed  by  tradition 
in  such  a  way  as  to  give  to  the  altar  its  position  at  the  east  end  of 
the  axis,  should  not  be  abandoned  without  urgent  reason.  Small 
deviations  (to  southeast  or  northeast)  do  not  interfere  with  the  sym- 
bolical thought."  1^8)  "The  choir  (apse)  is  type  of  the  world  of  trans- 
figuration toward  which  the  pilgrimage  of  the  congregation  in  the 
nave  is  directed.  She  has  left  the  world,  and  through  Baptism  has 
entered  the  holy  place;  her  face  is  turned  to  the  East,  and  her  progress 
is  through  time  to  eternity."  i'*^)  "We  seek  one  to  come,"  and  "Not 
as  though  I  had  already  attained,"  and  "Set  your  affection  on  things 
above,"  and  "The  day-spring  from  on  high  hath  visited  us,"  are  finely 
expressed  in  the  proper  orientation  of  a  church.^^'*)  Rietschel,  in- 
deed, with  a  cynical  aloofness  which  is  apparent  in  more  than  one 
instance,  declares  the  question  of  orientation  to  be  non-essential.^^i) 
Granted  that  the  custom  is  not  essential  for  the  Lutheran  character 
of  a  church  building  and  that  circumstances  may  sometimes  render 
it  impossible  to  observe  the  orientation,  it  is  also  true  that  most  other 
historical  and  practical  considerations  may  be  set  aside  and  the 
structure  still  deserve  the  name  of  a  Lutheran  house  of  worship. 
Besides,  the  investigations  of  Lowrie  have  shown  that  actual  devia- 
tions from  the  rule  are  extremely  rare,  the  few  actual  cases  being  due 
to  the  influence  of  Constantine,  who  retained  many  traces  of  his 
earlier  sun  worship.i52)     Since,  in  most  cases,  it  will  be  merely  a  mat- 


147)  Horn.  Op.  cit.,  84.  88,  111.  148)  Schultze,  Op.  cit.,  36. 

149)  Luthardt,  quoted  in  Schultze.  26. 

150)  Cp.  Meurer,  Der  Kirchenhau,  110.  111. 

151)  Kietschel,  Lehrlnich  der  Liturgik,  I,  124. 

152)  Monuments  of  the  Early  Church,  176 — 178. 


CHOICE  OF  ARCHITECTURAL  STYLE. 


139 


ter  of  choice  with  the  congregation,  the  ancient  customs  should  not 
be  disregarded  without  urgent  reasons. 

The  liturgical   requirements  of  a  Lutheran  church  have  been 


ST.   JACOB  I,    MILWAUKEB. 
(WiBConein  Synod.) 


touched  upon  under  historical  considerations.  But  a  few  factors 
should  be  emphasized  more  strongly.  Church  architecture  cannot 
feel  fully  satisfied  with  a  building  for  worship,  when  the  contractor 
simply  puts  up  four  walls,  covers  the  intervening  space  with  a  roof. 


140  CHOICE  OF  ARCHITECTURAL  STYLE. 

and  provides  seating  capacity  for  a  stated  number  of  people,  for  the 
rest  following  his  own,  often  florid,  imagination;  but  it  demands  a 
church  building  which  expresses  the  idea  of  Christian  worship  and 
fully  answers  the  purpose  of  the  ritual,  as  a  whole  and  in  all  its  parts. 
"In  fixing  the  dimensions  and  proportions,  in  the  disposing  of  the 
individual  parts,  in  the  location  of  portals  and  windows,  of  aisles 
and  seats,  in  the  designing  and  placing  of  pulpit,  baptismal  font,  and 
altar,  in  the  ornamenting  of  walls  and  windows,  in  the  ordering  of 
church  equipment,  paraments,  and  vestments,  structural  and  aesthetic 
reasons  alone  should  not  decide,  but  the  demands  of  liturgies  should 
receive  first  consideration,  in  order  that  the  place  of  the  cultus,  its 
purpose  in  the  ecclesiastical  ministration,  may  not  be  misunderstood 
and  the  visitor,  as  often  happens,  be  reminded  of  the  ball-room,  the 
concert-hall,  and  the  theater."  153)  This  criticism  applies,  in  general, 
to  American  Protestant  church  buildings.  When  we  enter  and  see 
the  arrangement  of  the  auditorium,  the  gallery  (and  sometimes  the 
balcony)  extending  across  the  nave  into  the  transepts  and  even  into 
the  apse,  with  box  seats  and  similar  appurtenances;  when  one  sees 
the  large  platform  with  its  elevated  portion  for  the  singers  and  the 
monster  organ  in  the-  front,  searching  in  vain,  at  the  same  time,  for 
altar  and  pulpit,  tuitil  one  discovers  an  insignificant  lectern  and  a 
still  less  significant  table,  one  is  tempted  to  indulge  in  criticizing 
levity  and  to  inquire  when  the  performance  is  scheduled  to  begin  and 
to  wonder  whether  programs  are  furnished  with  box  seats  only.  The 
Lutheran  Church  has  retained  the  division  of  its  church  edifices  into 
nave  and  apse,  not  in  order  to  make  a  distinction  between  clergy  and 
laity,  as  in  the  Roman  Catholic  Church,  but  in  order  to  give  expres- 
sion to  the  division  of  the  liturgy  in  the  sacrificial  and  sacramental 
parts  of  the  service.  Everything  that  pertains  to  the  office  of  redemp- 
tion, the  reading  of  the  Scripture  lessons,  the  pronouncing  of  the 
benediction,  the  preaching  of  the  Gospel,  the  administration  of  the 
Sacraments,  takes  place  in  the  apse;  all  acts  of  a  sacrificial  nature, 
prayer  and  singing  of  the  congregation  and  choir,  confession  of  sins 
and  of  the  Creed,  are  performed  by  and  with  the  assembled  congre- 
gation in  the  nave. 

In  order,  then,  to  summarize  all  the  requirements  of  an  aesthetic 
or  artistic,  an  historical,  and  a  liturgical  nature,  the  following  de- 
mands express  sound  Lutheran  usage.  A  Lutheran  church  building 
should  typify:  Christianity ^  in  a  Christian  style  of  architecture  and, 
in  larger  churches,  the  adoption  of  the  cruciform  ground-plan,  as  well 
as  the  other  symbols  of  Christianity ;  unity,  —  it  should  not  have  a 
number  of  detached  towers  and  additions,  but  the  building  must  form 


153>  Menrer.  Der  Kirehenhnu.  101.  102. 


CHOICE  OF  ARCHITECTURAL  STYLE. 


141 


an  harmonious  whole ;  simplicity^  —  all  ostentation  in  design  and  or- 
namentation must  be  avoided;  solidity  and  stability,  —  all  pretense 
and  flimsiness  is  out  of  place  in  a  church  building;  strength  and  vi- 
tality,—  this  can  be  shown  in  the  arrangement  of  arches,  in  solid 
masonry,  as  well  as  in  the  free  use  of  the  lines  of  force  where  the 
architecture  calls  for  such;   groivth,  —  by   avoiding   depressing  ceil- 


ST.   MARK'S   CHURCH,   TOLEDO,    OHIO. 
(Ohio  Synod.) 

ings  and  shortness  of  outline,  thus  gaining  the  effect  of  height  and 
free  space.  A  Lutheran  church  building  should  express  liturgical 
and  confessional  usage.  The  sermon,  together  with  the  Sacraments 
of  grace,  should  be  yielded  the  most  prominent  part  of  the  church. 
The  sanctuary  and  the  space  immediately  before  it  should  be  used 
exclusively  for  this,  the  principal  part  of  the  service.  Everything 
that  ^Yill  detract  the  devotion  from  the  sacramental  acts  of  the  liturgy 
has  no  place  before  the  congregation.    Prayer,  as  the  secondary  part 


142  CHOICE  OF  ARCHITECTURAL  STYLE, 

of  the  service,  must  be  given  due  consideration,  inasmuch  as  nothing 
in  or  near  the  apse  should  distract  the  attention  or  interfere  with  the 
proper  edification  of  a  devout  audience.  The  subordinate  parts  of  the 
Lutheran  service  are  represented  by  the  organ  and  choir.  These  are 
auxiliary,  ancillary  factors,  and,  in  spite  of  the  importance  accorded  to 
them,  must  never  be  given  the  same  prominence  as  the  means  of  grace. 
Their  position  in  the  apse  or  in  front  of  the  congregation,  especially 
on  a  greatly  elevated  platform  or  loft,  is  liturgically  wrong  and  may 
also  be  construed  as  confessionally  dangerous.  In  most  Protestant 
churches  of  America,  the  organ  is  the  most  conspicuous  part  of  the 
church  equipment  in  the  apse  or  on  the  large  front  platform,  and  the 
names  of  the  soloists  are  carefully  printed  in  large  type  on  the 
"program,"  as  well  as  the  titles  of  the  musical  compositions  that  shall 
delight  and,  perhaps,  edify  the  congregation;  but  the  pulpit  occupies 
a  hidden  corner,  if  it  is  present  at  all,  and  the  sermon  is  regarded  as 
a  somewhat  superfluous  adjunct.  This  arrangement  is  a  confession 
of  doctrine  which  coordinates  prayer  and  the  means  of  grace,  and 
often  subordinates  the  latter  to  the  former.  This  matter  is  so  im- 
portant that  it  will  be  taken  up  at  greater  length  below.  The  fact 
must  ever  stand  out  with  absolute  clearness  that  the  arrangement  of 
the  parts  of  the  building,  as  well  as  the  placing  of  every  part  of  the 
equipment,  must  be  governed  by  liturgical  considerations,  as  estab- 
lished by  confessional  usage  and  hallowed  by  history  and  tradition. 
The  question  as  to  the  most  appropriate  style  of  architecture  for 
a  Lutheran  church  has  been  answered,  in  a  way,  by  the  statement 
above  that  a  Lutheran  church  requires  a  Christian  style.  This  ex- 
cludes at  once  all  heathen  styles,  whether  they  be  Egyptian,  or  Per- 
sian, or  Assyrian,  or  Greek,  or  Moorish,  or  whatever  other  style  a 
perverted  fancy  may  suggest.  The  only  styles  that  come  into  con- 
sideration at  all  are  those  which  have  been  employed  in  the  Christian 
Church  since  the  second  century.  There  are  people,  of  course,  and 
among  them  artists,  who  look  upon  every  suggestion  as  to  an  estab- 
lished style  as  an  insult  to  their  intelligence  and  creative  power.  And 
when  men  of  the  caliber  of  Rietschel  defend  an  emancipated  eclecti- 
cism as  attempting  to  meet  the  needs  of  Evangelical  worship,!^*)  one 
can  hardly  be  surprised  at  the  audacity  of  lesser  minds.  And  when, 
in  addition,  they  bring  the  charge  of  a  dead  formalism  and  of  dis- 
couraging art,  the  question  of  church  architecture  seems  destined  to 
be  throviTi  into  the  forum  of  dispute,  like  imagist  poetry  and  cubist 
painting.  But  new  styles,  as  Mothes  points  out,  are  not  invented  by 
reflection,  but  are  the  fruit  of  an  organic  growth.  A  new  style,  if 
there  ever  will  be  such  a  thing  in  the  American  Lutheran  Church, 


154)  Lehrbuch  der  Liturgik,  125.  126. 


CHOICE  OF  ARCHITECTURAL  STYLE. 


143 


will  be  spontaneous,  and  not  the  result  of  deliberate  effort.  Besides, 
there  is  a  strong  measure  of  doubt  as  to  the  feasibility  of  discarding 
all  the  principles  enumerated  above.  So  far  as  the  accusation  is  con- 
cerned as  though  the  employment  of  a  definite  style  represents  dead 


EMANUEL'S    CHURCH,    MARION,    OHIO. 
(Ohio  Synod.) 


formalism,  the  charge  is  more  than  ridiculous,  it  is  absurd.  No  one 
has  suggested  the  copying  of  a  dead  art.  There  is  only  one  Cathedral 
of  Amiens,  or  York,  or  Cologne,  but  the  fundamental  principles  of 
Gothic  art  live  forever.     It  is  the  same  glorious  fact  which  weaves 


144  CHOICE  OF  ARCHITECTURAL  STYLE. 

enchantment  around  every  art,  lifting  it  out  of  the  dreary  rut  of  the 
commonplace,  and  causing  it  to  become  a  lodestar  for  all  times. 
There  is  only  one  Stradivarius,  one  Bach,  one  Praxiteles,  one  Apelles, 
one  Shakespeare,  and  yet  the  inspiration  of  their  wonderful  achieve- 
ments in  the  realm  of  their  respective  art  has  caused  a  thousand  minds 
to  seek  the  principles  of  their  art  and  to  emulate,  at  least  in  a  meas- 
ure, their  glorious  success.  That  is  what  every  designer  and  every 
builder  of  a  Lutheran  church  should  keep  in  mind.  A  mere  copying 
of  outward  forms  or  of  ornament  without  understanding  the  prin- 
ciples of  a  style  is  no  art.  There  is  all  the  difference  in  the  world 
between  more  or  less  slavish  copying,  even  though  genius  may  aid 
one  to  modify  with  pleasing  effect,  and  gaining  the  original  inspira- 
tion and  allowing  it  to  work  out  in  its  own  new  way.  The  latter  is 
the  ideal  we  are  striving  for.  And  in  this  sense  we  venture  a  critical 
discussion  of  such  styles  as  have  been  in  use  or  have  been  advocated 
for  adoption  since  the  Reformation. 

So  far  as  the  construction  of  a  Lutheran  church  in  the  Byzantine 
style  is  concerned,  little  need  be  said.  The  centralized  building  has 
fortunately  never  had  any  decided  influence  on  architectural  art  in 
the  Occident.  It  lives  only  in  established,  conventional  forms,  and 
its  symbolism  can  be  interpreted  only  as  that  of  an  effort  which  has 
expended  itself,  and  can  now  merely  portray  the  complete,  the  self- 
sufficient,  and  the  dead.  Besides,  the  domed  Byzantine  church  is  an 
inorganic,  intentional,  but  unsuccessful  amalgamation  of  Christian 
considerations  with  antique  and  Oriental  ideas,  as  Sclmaase  says. 
One  cannot  escape  the  sense  of  depression  in  such  a  church  building, 
so  far  as  the  Lutheran  cultus  is  concerned. 

The  style  of  the  early  basilica  is  mentioned  in  the  Eisenach 
Regulative.  And  it  cannot  be  denied  that  the  basilica  possesses  cer- 
tain advantages  which  recommend  it  to  a  denomination  that  insists 
upon  having  "Predigtkirchen" :  it  offers  a  great  deal  of  floor-space 
and  a  large  seating  capacity  for  its  dimensions,  and  it  permits  the 
introduction  of  galleries.  The  acoustics  is  also  favorable,  and  the  cost 
of  construction  relatively  low.  And  yet  the  basilica  cannot  be  said 
to  meet  the  requirements  of  a  Lutheran  church.  The  specific  Chris- 
tian character  is  lacking,  since  there  is  too  much  that  originated  in 
secular  architecture.  And  since  the  vertical  lines  are  by  far  the  more 
prominent,  the  building  makes  an  impression  of  great  heaviness,  es- 
pecially since  the  tower  is  lacking;  it  looks  too  much  like  a  corpse 
sprawled  along  the  ground.  The  vertical  ceiling  furthermore  pre- 
cludes all  possibilities  of  height,  thus  conflicting  with  religious  sym- 
bolism.155) 


155)  Scjiultze,  Das  evavgelische  Kirchengebaeude,  28. 


CHOICE  OF  ARCHITECTURAL  STYLE. 


145 


Although  the  German  Renaissance  is  not  summarily  ruled  out, 
as  Mothes  remarks,  yet  the  style  of  church  architecture  of  the  Re- 
naissance, especially  that  of  the  Jesuit  era,  can  hardly  come  into  con- 
sideration here.  The  cupola  or  dome  in  this  style  presents  a  grand 
appearance  from  the  outside,  but  it  really  has  no  liturgical  meaning 
from  the  standpoint  of  Christianity.  The  magnificence  of  the  dome, 
in  addition,  cannot  compensate  for  the  lack  of  commensurate  har- 
mony in  the  rest  of  the  building.  And  in  either  case,  the  dome, 
which  was  copied  from  antique  styles,  is  the  type  of  heaven  brought 
down  to  men,  but  resting  on  the  priests,  who  are  represented  by  the 
massive  columns  supporting  the  dome.  The  classical  pagan  element 
is  evident  at  every  turn.  Besides,  this  style  has  its  birth-place  in 
Italy,  in  the  midst  of  thoroughly  ultramontane  influence.    And  it  is. 


LUTHERAN  CHURCH,  ST.   SEBALD,  lA. 
(Iowa  Synod.) 

to  this  day,  the  only  proper  church  building  for  Roman  Catholic  con- 
gregations, where  the  hierarchy,  under  the  direct  control  of  ultramon- 
tanism,  has  full  sway.  For  basilica  and  Renaissance  style,  as  well  as 
the  Classic  Revival,  it  holds  true  that  anything  which  savors  of  tra- 
beated  architecture  is  out  of  harmony  with  the  spirit  of  the,  Luthe- 
ran cultus. 

The  only  styles,  then,  that  can  be  considered  with  any  degree  of 
seriousness,  are  the  Romanesque  and  the  Gothic.  Both  styles  are 
preeminently  ecclesiastical  styles,  grown  out  of  the  spirit  of  the 
Church  and  imbued  with  its  symbolism.  They  are  dissociated  from 
the  profane.  They  have  brought  forth  magnificent  structures  of  a 
noble  art,  and  their  fundamental  principles  are  applicable  to  all  re- 
quirements of  a  Lutheran  church  building.  There  is  no  denying,  of 
course,  that  there  are  tyi)es  of  these  styles  that  are  not  so  suitable  as 
others.    The  Norman  style  has  been  mentioned  favorably,  and  there 

Kretzmann,  Christian  Art.  10 


146  CHOICE  OF  ARCHITECTURAL  STYLE. 

are  some  fine  monuments  of  parish  churches  in  England.  But  the 
Norman  style  shows  too  many  features  of  trabeated  architecture.  Its 
tower  is  so  massive  that  it  stamps  the  entire  building  with  the  char- 
acter of  a  fortress,  in  a  measure  grim  and  forbidding.  There  is  little 
that  is  friendly  and  inviting.  Here  in  America  the  Tudor  style  of 
recent  parish  churches  has  found  much  favor.  And  it  has  much  to 
commend  it,  particularly  in  the  case  of  smaller  churches.  Its  vault- 
ing has  lost  in  height,  and  the  factor  of  comparative  cheapness  of 
construction  is  an  important  one.  Its  great  fault,  so  far  as  the  posi- 
tion of  the  choir  is  concerned,  could  be  corrected,  as  Cram  points 
out.156)  But  there  is  a  fundamental  principle  which  is  antagonistic 
to  Lutheran  requirements.  The  Tudor  style  represents  the  decay  of 
the  English  Gothic  and  the  preparation  for  the  Itenaissance.  It  is 
not  a  style  which  stands  for  full  vitality  and  power,  so  far  as  churches 
are  concerned.  In  secular  architecture  it  has  accomplished  much, 
because  it  proved  unusually  adaptable  to  large  buildings,  such  as 
schools  and  colleges.  But  the  arches  and  the  vaulting  in  the  case  of 
churches  exhibit  retrogression,  not  progression. 

There  still  remains  a  great  latitude  of  choice  in  the  French  and 
German  Romanesque,  in  the  Early  and  Middle  Pointed  periods  of  the 
Gothic  in  France  and  Germany,  and  in  the  Decorated  and  Perpen- 
dicular styles  of  the  Gothic  in  England.  In  many  cases,  the  simple, 
dignified  Romanesque  style  may  meet  with  all  requirements.  But  it 
cannot  be  doubted  that  the  Gothic  is  the  higher  and  more  completely 
developed  style.  The  great  favor  it  is  finding  in  America  may  well 
be  expl^iued  if  one  considers  its  symbolism  fully.  And  the  words  of 
praise  from  various  critics  which  have  been  recorded  in  the  chapter 
on  Gothic  Architecture,  could  be  supplemented  by  many  more.  "The 
religious  devotion,  the  free  uplifting  of  the  soul  to  God  must  be 
symbolized  in  the  interior  and  exterior  construction  of  the  (Gothic) 
church";  it  shall  "in  its  language,  the  language  of  architecture,  ex- 
press the  sursum  corda.  The  high  vaultings,  the  airy  spaces,  the 
tower  shall  speak  this  language,  and  everything  up  to  the  spire  flower 
that  opens  its  petals  in  intense  yearning  toward  heaven.  Everything 
that  produces  a  depressing,  narrowing,  gloomy  impression  must  be 
avoided."  i^'^)  "Although  it  is  not  style  or  ornament  that  makes  a 
structure  Christian,  but  rather  the  manner  in  which  the  architectural 
features  are  used,  still  it  appears  to  be  easier  to  give  a  religious  im- 
pression to  a  building  by  means  of  the  Gothic  than  by  either  of  the 
other  styles  (Renaissance  and  Romanesque).  It  is  also  a  noticeable 
fact  that  the  larger  proportion  of  the  best  examples  of  church  archi- 
tecture,   both  in  this  country  and  in  England,    are  in  the  Gothic 


156)  Church  Buildina.  19.  157)  Schultze,  Op.  eit.,  25. 


CHOICE  OF  ARCHITECTURAL  STYLE. 


147 


style.  ...  In  conclusion,  it  must  be  admitted,  perhaps,  that  God  can 
bo  worshipped  as  truly  in  an  amphitheatrical  church  as  in  a  Gothic 
cathedral,  but  it  is  nevertheless  true  that  a  church  which  speaks  ^xa• 
mistakably  of  its  mission  and  inculcates  in  the  attendant  a  feeling 
of  reverence  and  faith  in  God  adds  greatly  to  the  effect  of  the 
service."  i^^)     "Gothic  is  the  one  style  in  which  we  can  work."  i^^) 


ST.   PAUL'S  CHURCH,   S.   ST.    PAUL,   MINN. 
(Iowa  Synod.) 

Of  course  there  are  objections  to  both  Romanesque  and  Gothic,  as 
Kietschel  notes,*^^)  if  we  should  have  the  idea  that  the  churches  of 
those  periods  should  be  copied.  But  all  the  factors  which  he  mentions : 
the  high  choir  obstructing  the  view  of  the  altar,  the  columns  cutting 
off  the  view  of  the  pulpit,  the  poor  acoustics,  are  non-essentials,  and 


158)  Kidder,  Churches  and  Chapels,  12.  14. 

159)  Cram,  Church  Building,  Chapter  11. 

160)  Lehrbiich  der  Liturgik,  126.  127. 


148 


CHOICE  or  ARCHITECTURAL  STYLE. 


the  charges  will  not  stand  if  the  course  suggested  above  is  foUowed, 
namelj-,  that  of  adaptation. 

There  are  certain  general  suggestions  as  to  the  practical  and 
technical  execution  of  a  church  building  which  should  be  kept  in 
mind  at  all  times.  The  choice  of  material  depends,  to  a  great  extent, 
not  only  on  the  purses  of  the  builders,  but  also  on  the  laws  of  the 
state,  city,  or  town,  and  the  availability  of  certain  materials.  The 
time  may  not  be  far  distant  when  some  of  the  richer  congregations 
will  be  in  a  position  to  choose  granite  and  even  marble  for  church 
building.  But  for  most  congregations,  a  good  building-stone,  either 
lime-stone,  or  the  best  grade  of  sand-stone,  is  more  likely  to  come 
into  consideration.  Then  there  are  the  various  grades  of  brick  in  all 
shades  and  colors  which  are  available  in  almost  every  part  of  our 
country.    Cement  blocks  are  frequently  used  for  small  church  build- 


ARRANGEMEXT   OF   APSE. 

ings,  the  disadvantage  connected  with  their  use  having  been  practi- 
cally overcome.  The  use  of  common  brick  or  hollow  tile,  with  a 
facing  of  rubble  or  cement  stucco,  will  greatly  reduce  the  cost  of  a 
church  building  without  detracting  materially  from  its  appearance. 
In  a  case  of  this  kind,  the  cement  must  not  be  laid  out  in  blocks  to 
imitate  stone  or  perhaps  even  rusticated  masonry,  since  such  a  pro- 
ceeding would  be  opposed  to  the  principle  of  truth.  Frame  construc- 
tion is  often  the  only  construction  which  can  be  considered  in  smaller 
congr^ations  and  in  the  country.  It  should  not  be  employed,  how- 
ever, unless  absolutely  necessary,  because  frame  construction  is  not 
monumental.  Even  for  chapels,  the  demand  of  stability  is  a  prime 
consideration. 

Since,  in  the  Romanesque  style,  the  round  arch  is  the  governing 
principle  and  the  arcs  of  this  arch  ought  to  be  equal  in  height  and 
width,  and  since  also  the  diameters  of  the  circles  ought  to  correspond, 
there  is  little  opjKtrtunity  for  variation  from  the  square.  The  pro- 
portion of  the  length  to  the  width  is  also  governed  by  this  considera- 
tion. The  width  ought  not  to  be  less  than  one-half  and  not  more 
than  four-fifths  the  length  of  the  building.     The  width  of  the  apse 


CHOICE  OF  ARCHITECTURAL  STYLE. 


149 


ought  to  be  one-half  the  width  of  the  church.  The  vestry  (not  an 
integral  part  of  the  church  proper)  ought  to  be  south  of  the  sanc- 
tuary. The  corresponding  room  on  the  north  may  be  used  for  the 
study  of  the  pastor,  or,  better  still,  as  baptistery,  in  which  case  the 
wall  between  the  nave  or  transept  and  this  room  must  be  omitted. 
Small  churches  should  be  built  in  the  rectangular  form,  large  churches 
ought  to  be  cruciform,  the  transept  on  either  side  extending  one- 
eighth  to  one-fourth  the  width  of  the  church.  The  main  portal  is  in 
the  w&st  wall,  at  the  end  of  the  principal  axis  of  the.  church,  opposite 
the  altar.    In  this  way,  the  idea  of  length  is  fully  retained.     And  it 


OLD   SWEDISH  CHURCH   AT  ANDOVER,   ILL. 
(Augustana  Synod.) 

makes  no  difference  whether  the  church  has  a  center  tower  or  two 
side  towers  with  narrow  aisles  leading  diagonally  from  either  tower 
entrance  to  the  altar,  the  main  or  center  aisle,  symbolizing  the  direct, 
open  way  of  every  person  to  the  grace  of  God,  should  never  be  omit- 
ted. It  is  also  very  practical  in  case  of  weddings  and  fmierals.  The 
structure  of  the  windows  is  limited  by  the  round  arch,  as  indicated 
above,  and  the  windows  will  be  comparatively  small.  The  vestibule 
may  be  either  in  the  center  tower  room  or  under  either  side  tower,  or 
it  may  extend  the  width  of  the  church  building.  This  seems  especi- 
ally desirable  in  our  days,  when  a  retiring-room  for  women,  particu- 
larly those  with  little  children,  must  be  arranged  for  off  the  vestibule. 


150  CHOICE  OF  ARCHITECTURAL  STYLE. 

The  question  of  the  balcony  is  usually  very  bothersome.  The  balcony 
opposite  the  apse,  over  the  main  portal,  was  originally  intended  as  a 
choir  or  organ-loft,  after  the  introduction  of  that  splendid  instru- 
ment. But  reasons  of  economy  and  the  necessity  of  having  a  "Pre- 
digtkirche"  forced  poorer  congregations  sometimes  to  extend  the 
balcony  around  the  sides  of  the  church,  into  the  transept,  and  even 
into  the  apse!  And  sometimes  a  gallery  was  added  above  the  bal- 
cony! This  was  making  utility  the  paramount  principle  with  a  ven- 
geance, and  Spener  applauded.  Every  reason  of  art  speaks  against 
such  an  extension  of  the  choir  loft,  besides  the  liturgical  considera- 
tion that  the  hearer  ought  never  to  look  down  upon  the  preacher  in 
the  pulpit.  The  extended  balcony  is,  in  some  cases,  a  necessary  evil, 
in  others,  an  absolute  nuisance.  It  always  injures  the  effect  of  free- 
dom in  a  church,  besides  shutting  off  light  and  spoiling  the  harmony 
of  the  architecture,  not  to  mention  the  difficulty  which  the  speaker 
experiences  in  addressing  two  widely  separated  tiers  of  hearers.  Let 
tis  hope  that  some  day  in  the  near  future  the  balcony  will  again  be- 
come that  for  which  is  was  intended,  the  place  for  the  choir,  and 
especially  in  the  Lutheran  Church. 

So  far  as  the  furniture  for  a  church  building  in  the  Romanesque 
style  is  concerned,  it  must  be  remarked  that  the  lines  of  the  entire 
equipment  of  the  building  ought  to  conform  to  the  style  of  architec- 
ture. The  altar  and  pulpit  above  all  must  show  the  round  arches 
corresponding  to  the  barrel  vaulting  above.  It  need  hardly  be  men- 
tioned here  that  consistency  in  style,  interior  and  exterior,  is  an  ab- 
solute requirement.  It  is  just  as  easy  to  preserve  harmony  as  to 
build  an  architectural  monstrosity.  There  is  one  warning  that  must 
be  sounded  in  regard  to  the  Romanesque  style  of  church  building. 
Too  great  a  similarity  to  the  ancient  basilica  is  not  commendable  in 
this  style.  Christian  characteristics  must  never  be  relegated  to  the 
background.  And  when  the  horizontal  lines  of  the  antique  are  fol- 
lowed too  closely,  the  building  makes  the  impression  of  a  corpse  lying 
sprawled  on  the  ground. 

Everything  that  has  been  said  of  materials  and  general  shape 
applies  also  to  church  building  in  the  Gothic  style.  It  is  dangerous 
to  attempt  a  very  small  church  or  chapel  in  this  style,  unless  the  im- 
essential  factors,  and  especially  the  ornaments,  are  reduced  to  a 
minimiun.  "One  constantly  finds  churches,  seating  perhaps  less 
than  two  hundred,  where  the  plan  is  cruciform,  and  there  are  aisles, 
clerestory,  columns  of  iron  or  wood;  insignificant  towers,  gables,  bel- 
fries, and  porches  complete  the  already  shapeless  exterior;  and  the 
result  is  a  scandal."  i^^)     In  larger  churches,  more  of  the  Gothic  fea- 


161)  Cram,  Church  Buildinn.  16. 


CHOICE  OF  ARCHITECTURAL  STYLE. 


151 


tures  may  be  employed.  The  division  of  the  auditorium  into  three 
aisles  is  commonly  observed  in  the  Gothic  style.  Cram  suggests  that 
the  nave  be  24  to  27  feet  wide  and  Y5  to  90  feet  long,  separated  from 


FIRST    EV.-LUTH.   CHURCH,   JAMESTOWN,  N.   Y. 
(Augustana  Synod.) 

aisles  13  to  15  feet  wide  by  arcades  of  arches  supported  on  stone 
shafts  15  feet  on  centers.^^^)  it  may  be  possible,  however,  to  reduce 
the  number  of  columns  to  a  minimum  or  to  approach  the  idea  of  the 
German  "Hallenkirchen"  as  being  more  in  conformity  with  the  re- 


162)  Op.  cit.,  39. 


152  CHOICE  OF  ARCHITECTURAL  STYLE. 

quiremeuts  of  a  church  for  preaching,  in  which  every  one  that  attends 
may  not  only  hear,  but  also  see,  the  preacher.  The  general  propor- 
tion of  width  to  length  should  never  go  beyond  one  to  two.  The 
mathematical  rule  is  that  the  height  of  the  spire  corresponds  to  the 
total  length  of  the  building,  the  height  of  the  tranaept  to  the  width 
of  the  nave,  and  that  the  built-out  portion  of  the  transept  is  one- 
fourth  the  width  of  this  part.  These  are  the  proportions  of  the  Co- 
logne Cathedral,  admittedly  one  of  the  finest  examples  of  Gothic  art 
in  the  world.  Since,  however,  the  harmony  of  the  arc  in  the  Gothic 
does  not  require  proportionate  measurements  throughout  the  building, 
there  is  a  much  wider  latitude  for  expression  than  in  the  Roman- 
esque. The  greater  the  radius  of  the  arc  of  the  vaulting,  the  greater 
will  be  the  effect  of  height  and  distance.  The  walls  can  be  built 
proportionately  thinner,  because  the  pilasters,  braced  by  buttresses, 
easily  carry  the  vaulted  roof.  The  apse,  which  is  usually  one-half 
the  width  of  the  auditorium,  and  whose  depth  is  one-half  to  two- 
thirds  its  width,  can  be  made  a  beautiful  niche,  the  triumphal  arch 
rising  in  front  and  the  octagonal  or  polygonal  vaulting  rising  in  a 
majestic  curve  to  meet  above  the  altar.  The  vaulting  of  the  transept 
should  be  simple  cross-vaulting  to  correspond  to  the  cruciform  plan 
of  the  church.  Star-  and  fan-vaulting  is  inappropriate.  The  tower 
should  rise  in  lighter  and  more  graceful  lines  than  in  the  Roman- 
esque, receding,  if  possible,  with  each  story,  until  the  spire  rises  octag- 
onally  to  a  needle  point.  Flower  and  leaf  ornamentation  on  deco- 
rative turrets  and  ridges  should  always  have  an  upward  tendency. 
The  arches  throughout  the  building,  but  especially  in  doors  and  win- 
dows, should  have  the  same  curve  or  arc.  Christian  symbolism  may 
be  observed  by  arranging  the  window  openings  (of  which  there  should 
not  be  too  many),  especially  in  the  transept,  in  series  of  three.  The 
vestry  should  never  be  located  behind  the  sanctuary,  since  the  apse  is 
the  head  of  the  church  building,  and  any  chapel  or  other  subordinate 
room  behind  it  will  destroy  the  harmony  of  the  building.  The  am- 
bulatory may  well  be  dispensed  with.  As  for  the  balcony,  the  same 
demand  holds  true  here  as  in  the  Romanesque,  only,  if  possible,  with 
still  greater  emphasis.  Any  horizontal  lines  here  are  in  still  greater 
contrast  with  the  style,  and  cannot  be  tolerated,  except  where  abso- 
lutely necessary,  as  in  the  case  of  the  choir  loft.  The  place  for  the 
choir  is  on  this  loft,  opposite  the  altar.  Chancel  choirs  have  become 
fashionable,  remarks  Cram  rather  sarcastically,  but  the  place  for  the 
organ  and  mixed  choir  is  at  the  west  end  in  a  gallery.  Any  other 
place,  with  the  exception,  perhaps,  of  the  north  or  south  transept,  is, 
liturgically  speaking,  impossible,  especially  in  a  Lutheran  church. 
Coordination  and  subordination  of  the  various  parts  of  the  Christian 


CHOICE   OF   ARCHITECTURAL  STYLE. 


153 


BETHLEHEM   CHURCH.    MINNEAPOLIS. 

INSERT:   MUSKEOO   CHURCH. 

(NorweKlan.) 


154  CHOICE   OF  ARCHITECTURAL  STYLE. 

service  must  be  apparent  also  in  the  arrangement  of  the  house  of  wor- 
ship. If  the  floor  of  the  auditorium  is  inclined  slightly,  it  will  be  of 
advantage  to  the  audience,  both  for  seeing  and  hearing.  It  will  be 
well  to  have  sound-proof  flooring  laid  in  the  auditorium.  Above  all, 
it  cannot  be  repeated  too  often  that  consistency  must  rule  and  har- 
mony be  preserved.  Many  a  church  which  otherwise  might  have  been 
beautiful,  has  been  spoiled  by  the  mixing  of  two  or  more  styles,  and 
the  result  is  a  disharmony,  a  discord  which  strikes  even  the  casual 
visitor.  This  will  appear  even  more  when  the  several  parts  of  the 
church  building  are  discussed. 

There  are  other  preliminary  considerations  of  a  practical  and 
technical  nature  which  may  not  be  ignored.  It  is  manifestly  impos- 
sible, in  a  country  as  large  as  ours,  where  so  many  different  condi- 
tions obtain,  to  state  more  than  general  rules  and  requirements.  It 
is  also  advisable  to  have  some  reference  book,  written  from  the  purely 
technical  side  of  the  question,  such  as  Price's  '^Practical  Book  of 
Architecture,"  as  a  guide  to  the  understanding  of  legal  and  technical 
difficulties,  always  at  hand.  Most  of  these,  however,  will  be  avoided, 
if  a  congregation  will  observe  Kidder's  seven  preliminary  steps  before 
beginning  building  operations.  They  are  1)  Organize  according  to 
the  laws  of  the  state  and  the  discipline  of  the  church;  2)  Secure  the 
best  possible  site,  with  a  clear  title;  3)  Provide  the  means  to  build 
without  embarrassing  debt;  4)  Secure  suitable  plans  prepared  by  a 
competent  architect;  5)  Let  the  building  committee  consist  of  com- 
petent men;  6)  Insist  upon  the  supervision  by  the  architect;  Y)  Make 
no  changes  in  the  plans,  and  if  such  are  found  necessary,  let  every 
transaction  be  carefully  recorded.  These  suggestions  are  plain  and 
to  the  point. 

The  question  of  a  suitable  building  site  is  of  such  importance 
that  it  should  be  considered  most  carefully.  "The  spot  chosen  for  the 
building  should  be  easy  of  access  to  all  parts  of  the  congregation."  163) 
This  does  not  imply  that  the  location  must  be  in  the  geographical 
center  of  the  congregation,  but  about  in  its  center  of  population,  re- 
moved, however,  from  a  disagreeable  neighborhood,  not  too  near  a 
railroad  or  directly  on  a  street-car  line  or  where  the  traffic  is  unusually 
noisy.  An  advantage  which  can  be  secured  in  a  town  or  village,  or 
in  the  country,  oftener  than  in  a  city,  is  that  the  church  be  on  an 
elevation,  open  on  all  sides  or  with  a  wide  approach  from  the  west. 
When  a  church  is  wedged  in  between  other  buildings,  this  often 
proves  a  disagreeable  feature  in  more  than  one  respect. 

A  very  difficult  question  is  usually  that  of  the  size  of  the  church. 
Conditions  vary  so  greatly  in  the  various  congregations  that  the  de- 


163)  Mothes,  quoted  in  Horn,  107. 


CHOICE  OF  ARCHITECTURAL  STYLE, 


155 


termination  of  this  factor  depends  almost  upon  the  individual  in- 
stance. In  congregations  which  are  growing  rapidly  only  one  limit 
can  be  set,  and  this  is  that  the  size  of  the  flock  should  not  be  too  great 
for  one  pastor's  strength  to  minister  to.  The  maximum  number  of 
souls  in  the  care  of  one  pastor  should  not  exceed  1,000,  the  number  of 
commtmicants  600.  In  old  congregations  the  size  is  practically  stable, 
and  there  the  determination  of  dimensions  for  a  new  church  will  be 
an  easier  matter.  Church  attendance  in  various  sections  of  the  coun- 
try and  in  different  congregations  also  varies  a  great  deal.  There 
are  places  where  a  90%  attendance  is  not  unusual,  and  others  in  which 


ST.   JOHN'S   CHURCH,    HAGKRSTOWN,   MD. 
(General  Synod,  United  Lutheran  Church.) 

a  30%  attendance  would  be  considered  remarkable.  As  a  rule,  a  60  to 
75%  attendance  is  figured,  and  regular  seating  capacity  provided  for 
that  number.  The  best  authorities  figure  two-fifths  to  one-half  a 
square  yard  of  area  for  the  church,  including  apse  and  vestibule,  for 
every  person  attending.  It  seems  safer,  however,  to  place  it  at  two- 
thirds  to  three-fourths  of  a  square  yard,  allowing  for  the  entire  area 
of  the  church  building. 

It  is  always  safe  to  investigate  the  subsoil  of  the  proposed  site 
down  to  bedrock.  Water  or  quicksand  may  be  present  at  a  small 
depth  and  cause  great  expense  and  delay.  It  is  almost  self-evident 
that  the  footings  of  the  foundation  be  heavy  enough  to  carry  the 
walls.     There  should  be  no  settling  in  the  foundation.     Brick  walls 


156  CHOICE  OF  ARCHITECTURAL  STYLE. 

more  than  fourteen  feet  high  above  the  water-tables,  which  are  not 
braced  by  frequent  buttresses,  should  be  at  least  sixteen  inches  thick 
(without  mortar),  and  no  wall  should  be  less  than  twelve  inches 
(thirteen  inches)  thick.  The  floors  should  be  built  to  carry  a  load  of 
at  least  eighty  pounds  per  square  foot,  and  one  hundred  and  twenty 
pounds  in  places  that  are  likely  to  be  crowded.  The  timbering  of  the 
roofs  and  the  vaulting  of  the  ceilings  must  conform  with  the  style  of 
the  church.  From  forty  to  fifty  pounds  per  square  foot  is  usually  al- 
lowed for  wind  pressure,  but  in  places  subject  to  heavy  winds  sixty 
to  seventy  pounds  must  be  allowed.  If  the  entire  church  is  not  made 
fireproof,  provision  should  be  made  to  have  fireproof  or  slow-burning 
construction  at  least  under  the  stairs  and  balconies.  Much  is  gained 
if  the  roof  can  be  covered  with  slate  or  tiling,  and  metal  lath  used 
throughout  the  building.  Fortunately,  the  building  laws  in  most 
states  now  provide  for  adequate  safeguarding  in  public  buildings. 

Much  more  might  be  said  with  reference  to  various  general  con- 
siderations, but  many  of  the  questions  will  find  an  easy  solution  if  a 
good  architect  has  charge  of  the  construction.  But  the  problem  of 
acoustics  is  so  important  that  it  seems  to  require  some  attention. 
Experiments  that  have  been  made  within  the  last  two  decades  have 
resulted  in  the  following  general  rule:  "Make  the  height  of  the 
rooms  equal  to  one-half  the  width,  plus  the  distance  from  the  speaker's 
mouth  to  the  floor,  and  the  depth  (measured  from  the  position  of  the 
speaker)  from  one  and  one-half  to  twice  the  width,  but  not  greater 
than  ninety  feet.  The  relation  of  height  to  width  appears  to  be  more 
important  than  that  of  width  to  length.  .  .  .  The  formation  of  re- 
cesses, breaking  up  end  walls,  rounding  and  canting  off  angles,  bring- 
ing the  ceiling  on  the  walls  with  a  cove  or  cant,  and  breaking  it  up 
with  groining,  are  all  methods  of  avoiding  the  risk  of  acoustic  fail- 
ure." 1^'*)  It  is  best  for  the  station  of  the  speaker  to  be  against  a  flat 
wall.  It  will  also  be  found  to  aid  acoustics  if  the  walls  are  left  with 
a  rough  surface.  In  some  buildings,  extreme  cases  of  resonance  and 
reverberation  have  been  remedied  by  furring  the  walls  at  certain 
places,  or  by  drawing  wires  across  the  auditorium,  or  by  suspending 
drapery  or  banners  at  definite  intervals. 


164)  R.  Smith,  quoted  in  Kidder,  Churches  and  Chapels,  120.  122. 


THE  PARTS  OF  THE  CHURCH  BUILDING,  157 

CHAPTER  2. 
The  Architecture  of  the  Various  Parts  in  a  Lutheran  Church  Building. 

An  architect  that  understands  not  only  the  practical,  but  also  the 
historical  and  liturgical  requirements  of  church  buildings,  is  almost 
an  exception.  Many  members  of  the  craft  pay  almost  no  attention  to 
this  side  of  their  work,  and  when  consulted,  attempt  to  carry  off  the 
matter  with  a  bluff  behavior.  Others  have  informed  themselves  upon 
the  special  demands  of  Catholic  and  Anglican  churches,  but  have  dis- 
regarded the  Lutheran  point  of  view  entirely.  This  may  be  due  to 
the  fact  that  the  rules  in  the  stronger  ritualistic  churches  are  more 
absolute,  while  the  Lutheran  liturgy  permits  of  a  wider  latitude. 
Nevertheless,  the  proper  understanding  of  the  liturgical  and  confes- 
sional attitude  of  the  Lutheran  Church  is  essential  for  proper  Luthe- 
ran architecture.  The  fault  lies,  to  a  great  extent,  with  the  Lutheran 
congregations  and  their  pastors,  who  neglect  to  inform  themselves  as 
to  what  is  appropriate  for  their  own  use.  In  some  cases,  also,  a  spirit 
of  false  liberalism  is  becoming  manifest,  which  may  eventually  result 
in  disastrous  consequences  to  the  thoughtless  prater  against  "dead 
formalism."  There  is  usually  none  so  bigoted  as  he  that  apes  every 
new  fad  and  boasts  of  his  eclecticism.  The  hideous  nightmares  which 
are  compelled  to  serve  as  Lutheran  houses  of  worship  in  some  sections 
of  our  country  are  a  florid  example  of  such  bigotry.  It  is  for  this 
reason  that  it  may  prove  of  benefit  to  those  who  would  have  all  things 
done  decently  and  in  order  that  a  brief  discussion  of  the  various 
parts  in  a  Lutheran  church  building  is  here  offered. 

It  has  been  stated  above  repeatedly,  and  it  is  here  reiterated,  for 
the  sake  of  emphasis,  that  the  Lutheran  church  is  primarily  a  "Pre- 
digtkirche,"  that  its  chief  function  is  to  serve  for  the  preaching  of 
the  Word.  Luther's  words  in  the  Torgau  Consecration  Sermon,  so 
often  quoted,  that  in  the  worship  of  God  nothing  else  takes  place  than 
that  "our  dear  Lord  speaks  to  us  through  His  holy  Word,  and  we,  in 
reply,  speak  to  Him  in  prayer  and  praise,"  have  an  enduring  value. 
Accordingly,  the  auditorium  demands  the  most  careful  attention, 
whether  it  be  a  simple  nave,  or  one  with  transept,  whether  one  or 
both  of  these  parts  are  one-aisled  or  three-aisled.  The  evident  ten- 
dency in  our  days  is  toward  the  centralized  form  of  auditorium.  The 
nave  is  constructed  shorter  and  wider  in  proportion  than  formerly. 
In  many  cases,  the  church  proper  is  practically  square,  the  gable 
alone  indicating  the  position  of  the  former  transept.  The  principle 
of  length,  in  a  case  of  this  kind,  has  been  sacrificed  entirely  to  utility. 
The  other  extreme  is  represented  by  the  English  Gothic,  in  which  the 
idea  of  length  is  over-emphasized.  So  very  prominent  has  this  fea- 
ture become  in  some  instances,  that  the  central  aisle  resembles  a  long 


158  THE  PARTS  OF  THE  CHURCH  BUILDING. 

corridor,  at  whose  farther  end,  beyond  the  choir,  is  situated  the  altar, 
in  the  dim  distance.  It  will  be  best  to  observe  the  golden  mean  in  a 
Lutheran  church.  We  gladly  adopt  the  suggestion  that  a  good  church 
building  should  begin  in  simplicity,  at  the  western  entrance,  and 
converge  at  the  (high)  altar.  In  other  words,  the  idea  of  the  nave 
(navis)  ought  to  be  expressed  very  plainly.  The  nave  represents  the 
ship  of  the  Church  sailing  bravely  out  of  the  darkness  of  this  world 
toward  the  eternal  Light,  beckoning  onward  to  the  glorious  harbor 
above.  It  is  not  a  ship  according  to  the  ideas  of  the  medieval  artist 
whose  picture  Luther  so  vividly  describes,  where  the  vessel  contained 
the  clergy  only,  but  it  is  a  ship  which  offers  security  and  a  safe  pas- 
sage to  all  who  enter  this  nave  and  listen  to  the  voice  of  the  Great 
Pilot.  For  this  reason,  the  width  of  the  entire  nave  should  not  be 
less  than  one-half  or  more  than  four-fifths  the  length.  If  a  transept 
is  present  in  a  larger  church,  it  may  extend  one-eighth  to  one-fourth 
the  width  of  the  church  building.  This  will  mean  not  merely  the  ob- 
serving of  an  ancient  symbolism,  but  will  yield  a  very  decided  advan- 
tage, so  far  as  acoustics  is  concerned.  The  great  majority  of  the 
hearers  will  then  be  able  to  sit  in  reasonable  proximity  to  the  speaker, 
a  fact  which  will  also  add  to  the  compactness  of  the  audience,  if  the 
ushers  possess  that  invaluable  quality,  skillful  tact.  The  question 
whether  three-aisled  churches  should  be  abandoned  has  been  broached 
in  all  seriousness,  the  contention  being  that  it  is  impossible  to  arrange 
the  seats  so  that  all  the  people  present  may  hear  well  and  also  be  able 
to  see  the  preacher.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  the  difficulty  seems  to  have 
been  exaggerated.  Most  of  the  larger  Gothic  churches  in  America 
have  the  three-aisled  plan  and  do  not  seem  to  experience  decided  in- 
conveniences on  that  account.  On  the  other  hand,  if  the  suggestion 
as  to  the  maximum  size  of  individual  congregations  can  be  carried 
out,  a  one-aisled  church  with  transept  can  be  built  without  great  ex- 
pense, which  will  fully  accommodate  the  maximum  audience  that 
may  be  expected,  even  upon  festival  occasions.  A  point  which  should 
not  be  forgotten  in  planning  the  floor  of  the  auditorium,  in  case  this 
is  intended  to  be  of  the  inclined  variety,  is  this  that  only  the  actual 
portion  containing  seats  should  be  constructed  obliquely,  the  space  in 
front  of  the  apse,  in  front  of  any  side  doors,  and  in  the  vestibule  al- 
ways remaining  level.  In  case  a  bowl-shaped  floor  is  adopted,  the 
semicircle  in  front  of  the  sanctuary  should  be  large  enough  to  include 
also  the  pulpit. 

The  chancel  (apse,  sanctuary,  altar  space)  is  the  head  of  the- 
church,  the  eastern  end  of  the  axis  which  begins  at  the  western  portal 
and  leads  down  the  main  aisle  directly  to  the  altar,  without  any  di- 
viding line  or  obstructing  railing.     The  Greek  or  the  Gothic  rood- 


THE  PARTS  OF  THE  CHURCH  BUILDING. 


159 


screen  has  no  place  in  a  Lutheran  church,  and  the  reason  sometimes 
offered  for  their  adoption,  namely,  to  keep  the  dogs  away  from  the 
altar,  will  hardly  appeal  to  a  modem  congregation.  While  the  low 
rail  which  was  in  use  before  Leo  III,  with  a  broad  and  always  open 
entrance,  may  not  be  objectionable  in  itself,  it  nevertheless  is  a  re- 
minder of  the  strict  dividing  line  between  clergy  and  laity  which 
obtains  in  the  Catholic  Church,  and,  to  a  large  extent,  in  the  Epis- 
copal Church,  and  had  better  not  be  introduced,  unless  the  congrega- 


GRACE   CHUKCil,    WAUSVVOHTil,    OliiO. 
(General  Synod,  United  Lutheran  Church.) 

tion  from  former  days  has  been  used  to  it.  In  this  event,  however, 
the  Eucharist  should  never  be  distributed  at  this  railing,  but  always 
.at  the  altar.  The  altar  space  should  be  visible  from  every  part  of  the 
church,  with  all  that  it  contains,  and  should  be  so  constructed  and 
arranged  that  it  is  "the  culmination  and  goal  and  completion  of  the 
place  of  the  congregation  and  so  announce  that  it  is  the  place  for 
communion  with  the  Lord."  ^^)  The  apse  should,  for  these  reasons, 
be  elevated,  at  least  two,  at  the  most  five  steps  above  the  floor  of  the 
nave.     This  emphasizes  the  loftiness  and  dignity  of  the  Eucharist, 


165)  Mothes,  quoted  in  Horn,  108. 


160  THE  PARTS  OF  THE  CHURCH  BUILDING. 

besides  bringing  the  pastor,  in  the  performance  of  his  official  acts, 
into  the  full  view  of  the  congregation.  The  shape  of  the  apse  is 
usually  octagonal  or  polygonal.  The  English  churches  have  the  pe- 
culiarity of  a  square  apse,  which  differs  very  radically  from  the  origi- 
nal shell  shape  (concha)  of  the  sanctuary  and  seems  out  of  harmony 
with  the  rest  of  the  building.  It  also  makes  the  impression  of  too 
great  a  depth  and  a  consequent  removal  of  the  altar  from  the  people. 
If  the  shape  of  half  a  polygon  is  used,  and  the  ceiling  converges  above 
the  altar  in  graceful  lines  of  force,  the  effect  is  a  very  beautiful  one. 
The  platform  for  the  altar  should  be  one  step  higher  than  the  apse, 
and  situated  in  its  center.  Four  to  six  feet  should  be  allowed  behind 
the  altar  as  a  passage  for  the  communicants  in  going  from  the  north 
side  to  the  south  side,  and  as  many  feet  in  front  of  the  altar,  so  that 
the  confirmands,  the  bridal  pair,  and  others  that  receive  the  blessing 
at  the  altar,  may  have  sufficient  room  to  step  forward  before  kneeling 
down.  This  extra  riser  is  also  very  practical  for  kneeling  during  the 
distribution  of  the  Holy  Communion.  It  makes  a  very  fine  impres- 
sion if  the  altar  is  planned  to  fit  the  chancel  in  such  a  way  as  to  make 
the  distance  from  either  side  of  the  altar  to  the  walls,  and  that  of  the 
highest  ornament  to  the  ceiling,  the  same.  Everything  that  shows 
harmony  is  restful  and  quieting,  conducive  to  receptivity  for  edifi- 
cation. This  should  be  remarked  also  in  regard  to  the  lighting  of  the 
apse.  In  Catholic  churches,  the  sanctuary  is  purposely  kept  dark,  in 
order  to  enhance  the  impression  of  the  great  mystery  of  transubstan- 
tiation.  In  Anglican  churches,  also,  it  is  suggested  to  keep  the  chan- 
cel "quite  dark,  for,  by  so  doing,  we  increase  the  effect  of  length  and 
size,  adding,  as  well,  a  touch  of  that  mystery  that  comes  from  shadow, 
—  a  quality  that  should  be  achieved  in  every  church."  i^^)  On  the 
jpther  hand,  Lutherans,  in  many  cases,  flooded  the  apse  with  a  dis- 
proportionate amount  of  light,  in  order  to  obviate  the  siispicion  of 
popery.  The  result  was'  often  seen  in  the  placing  of  two  large  win- 
dows in  the  chancel,  on  either  side  of  the  altar,  whose  glaring  light 
was  very  painful  for  the  audience  to  face.  The  solution  of  the  diffi- 
culty is  obvious.  If  one  window  is  placed  behind  the  altar  reredos  in 
such  a  position  that  the  direct  light  rays  are  cut  off,  the  illiunination 
of  the  chancel  will  be  fully  satisfactory  for  all  purposes,  and  the 
audience  will  escape  a  distressing  experience. 

A  suggestion  which  has  been  repeatedly  made  is  to  find  some 
room,  if  possible  one  open  to  the  auditorium  and  connected  \Yith  the 
apse,  which  might  be  used  for  a  baptistery  or  baptismal  chapel. 
Many  liturgists  advocate  the  return  to  the  method  anciently  used, 
when  the  administration  of  baptism  was  practically  confined  to  adults. 


166)  Cram,  Chvrch  Btiildino,  19. 


THE  PARTS  OF  THE  CHURCH  BUILDING.  161 

and  separate  baptisteries  were  no  longer  in  general  use.  At  that 
time,  the  baptismal  font  was  placed  near  the  western  entrance.  The 
first  part  of  the  sacred  act  took  place  at  the  doors.  When  the  words : 
'•The  Lord  preserve  thy  going  out  and  thy  coming  in,"  etc.,  had  been 
spoken,  the  baptismal  candidate  with  the  attendants  followed  the 
priest  to  the  font,  where  baptism  was  administered.  It  is  for  the 
purpose  of  preserving  this  ancient  custom  that  the  plans  of  Episcopal 
churches  show  a  baptismal  chapel  off  the  vestibule,  on  the  north  side. 
In  Catholic  churches,  there  is  usually  an  alcove  or  a  chancelled  place 
not  far  from  the  main  entrance,  but  inside  the  nave,  which  is  set 
aside  for  a  baptistery.  In  Lutheran  churches  this  position  is  rare, 
though  advocated  by  some  for  its  alleged  appropriate  symbolism. 
Meurer  also  mentions  the  position  of  the  font  in  the  Minster  of  Ulm, 
where  it  is  located  near  a  pillar  in  the  nave,  surrounded  by  a  chancel 
railing,  and  protected  by  a  canopy.^^")  But  the  symbolism  has  changed 
somewhat  since  the  earliest  Christian  era.  At  that  time,  only  the 
members  in  good  standing  were  allowed  to  be  present  in  the  church 
proper  during  the  missa  fidelium,  and  even  the  lugentes  or  hiemantes 
were  not  admitted  inside  the  main  portals  during  the  missa  catechu- 
menorum.  The  symbolical  meaning  of  the  rite  of  Baptism  (not  its 
sacramental  use)  therefore  was  simply  this  that  the  baptized  person 
was  now  outwardly  admitted  to  the  congregation  and  had  the  right 
to  remain  for  the  Eucharist.  In  our  days,  the  exclusion  is  not  so 
rigid,  so  far  as  presence  at  services  is  concerned.  Any  person  may 
attend  Lutheran  services  and  also  be  present  during  the  celebration 
of  the  Eucharist.  But  the  apse,  the  place  for  the  dispensing  of  the 
means  of  grace,  is  open  to  Lutherans,  members  and  guests  of  the 
congregation  only.  A  position  for  the  font,  therefore,  which  is  litur- 
gically  correct,  is  that  at  the  entrance  to  the  apse,  on  the  north  side. 
By  a  proper  dividing  of  the  form  of  baptism,  the  symbolism  of  ad- 
mission to  the  congregation  may  well  be  preserved.  This  may  be  done 
still  better  by  using  the  space  north  of  the  chancel,  which  is  now  often 
utilized  as  a  storeroom  or  for  the  organ,  as  a  baptistery.  If  the  wall 
toward  the  transept  be  omitted,  the  opening  arched,  and  the  floor 
raised  to  the  same  level  as  that  of  the  chancel,  this  space  would  serve 
excellently  well  for  a  baptismal  chapel,  the  form  for  the  act  being  di- 
vided as  in  the  early  Church.  Seats  may  be  provided  for  the  spon- 
sors with  the  child  near  the  entrance  to  the  baptistery,  where  the 
pastor  would  meet  them  for  the  first  part  of  the  sacred  act.  In  the 
baptistery,  the  Sacrament  is  then  administered,  whereupon  the  con- 
cluding prayer,  which  most  liturgies  call  for,  should  be  spoken  at  the 
altar.    It  is  assumed,  of  course,  that  the  Baptism  will,  as  a  rule,  be 


167)  Der  Kirchenbau,  219. 

Kretzmann,  Cbiistian  Art.  11 


162  THE  PABTS  OF  THE  CHUBCH  BUILDING. 

administered  in  the  presence  of  the  congregation.  For,  as  the  prayer- 
book  of  Edward  VI  very  pertinently  remarks,  the  assembled  congre- 
gation should  witness  the  receiving  of  the  new  members  into  its  com- 
munion, and  every  Christian  should  thereby  be  reminded  of  his  o\vn 
Baptism  and  its  wonderful  blessings. 

The  question  of  the  balcony  in  a  Lutheran  church  was  touched 
upon  to  some  extent  above.  It  is  a  case  where  utility  and  practical 
needs  on  the  one  side,  and  liturgical  and  artistic  considerations  on 
the  other  side,  often  render  a  decision  very  difficult.  Some  writers 
have  considered  balconies  a  characteristic  feature  of  Protestant 
churches,  but  without  sufficient  reason.  "They  must  rather,  since 
they  spoil  the  effect  of  a  large,  free  space  and  remind  of  theaters  and 
ball-rooms,  be  considered  as  an  evil."  ^^S)  If  this  evil  be  necessary, 
then  the  balconies  should  be  as  unobtrusive  as  possible.  They  do  not 
serve  materially  to  reduce  the  cost  of  a  church.  Their  only  valid 
excuse  for  being  is  in  a  large  congregation,  where  the  great  mass  of 
hearers  must  be  brought  as  near  as  possible  to  the  apse.  In  that  case, 
the  balcony  should  not  extend  very  far  beyond  the  vestibule  wall  into 
the  nave,  nor  beyond  the  side  aisles  into  the  center  aisle  of  the  nave. 
If  there  are  transept  balconies,  they  should  never  extend  into  the 
nave,  or,  as  in  some  cases,  to  the  side  of  the  pulpit.  It  is  far  better 
for  both  speaker  and  audience  if  the  assembly  is  situated  in  a  com- 
pact body,  where  he  may  look  directly  at  each  hearer  without  strain- 
ing the  neck  or  resorting  to  other  undue  contortions.  For  such  as 
feel  that  galleries  are  a  necessary  adjunct  to  a  Lutheran  church  build- 
ing, the  words  of  Mothes  may  be  comforting,  when  he  writes :  "Since 
galleries  not  only  are  necessary  for  the  accommodation  of  a  greater 
number  and  for  economical  reasons  [?],  but  also  contribute,  in  fairly 
large  congregations,  to  a  family-like  gathering  of  the  assembly  around 
the  speaker,  in  contrast  with  other  auditoriums,  and  therefore  are 
almost  characteristic  of  Evangelical  architecture,  they  must  be  ar- 
ranged in  connection  with  the  pulpit  in  such  a  way  that  the  preacher 
can  be  seen  and  heard  equally  well  by  those  in  the  galleries  and  those 
under  them,  and  so  that  the  unity  of  the  room  is  presented.  There- 
fore the  seats  in  the  gallery  must  be  so  arranged  that  no  straining  of 
necks  will  be  needed  to  see  the  altar,  and  so  that  those  sitting  in  them 
will  not  have  their  attention  diverted,  and  that  those  on  the  rear  seats 
will  not  have  the  heads  of  those  before  them  between  them  and  the 
preacher."  i*^) 

In  spite  of  all  this,  symbolical  and  liturgical  reasons  are  unfavor- 
able to  the  large  gallery.    The  unity  of  the  congregation  is  spoiled  by 


168)  Schultze,  Op.  cit.,  46. 

169)  Quoted  in  Horn,  Lutheran  Principles  of  Church  Architecture,  103. 


THE  PARTS  OF  THE  CHURCH  BUILDING. 


163 


the  two-story  effect;  those  sitting  beneath  the  gallery  have  no  con- 
ception of  the  idea  of  height,  and  the  hearers  above  either  look  down 
upon  the  speaker,  or,  if  the  pulpit  is  elevated  to  a  position  near  the 
ceiling,  those  beneath  the  pulpit  will  endanger  their  cervical  verte- 
brae in  the  effort  to  look  up  at  the  preacher.  The  sanest  and  simplest 
plan  seems  to  be  to  have  only  the  small  balcony,  known  as  the  organ- 
or  choir-loft  at  the  west  end  of  the  building,  above  the  vestibule,  op- 


liHBBKlKB$*<n>  ■ 


-^^:mr~ 


TRINITY  CHURCH,  LANCASTER,  PA. 
(General  Council,  United  Lutheran  Church.) 

posite  the  altar.  This  is  the  proper  position  of  the  choir  in  a  Luthe- 
ran church.  For  the  choir  is  intended  to  sing  with  the  congregation, 
although  occasionally  it  may  represent  the  heavenly  host  in  the  Oloria 
in  excelsis,  and  sing  the  latter  part  of  this  hymn  alone.  It  should 
lead  the  assembly  in  the  responses  and  hymns.  And  the  sound  of  the 
organ  should  flow  in  the  same  direction  as  the  volume  of  praise,  ado- 
ration, and  supplication  issuing  from  the  mouths  of  the  faithful.  It 
is  a  most  unfortunate  and   deplorable  circumstance   that  so   many 


164  THE  PARTS  OF  THE  CHURCH  BUILDING. 

Lutheran  congregations  have  followed  the  so-called  fashionable  de- 
mand for  a  chancel  choir,  with  the  organ  in  full  view  of  the  audience. 
And  a  number  were  not  satisfied  with  this  achievement,  but  placed 
the  organ-loft  above  and  behind  altar  and  pulpit,  thus  giving  to  it 
the  most  conspicuous  place  in  the  church  and  calmly  ignoring  all. 
liturgical  and  historical  considerations.  "The  organ  and  the  choir 
of  singers  should  be  placed  at  the  end  of  the  church  opposite  the  al- 
tar. The  organ  should  not  be  placed  behind  the  altar.  This  position 
is  defended  by  those  who  hold  that  the  whole  service  depends  on  the 
congregation,  and  deny  the  real  presence  in  the  Word  and  Sacraments, 
and  by  those  who  declare  that,  the  service  properly  consisting  of  re- 
sponsive interchange  between  the  Christian  people,  it  is  part  of  the 
function  of  the  choir  to  preach  the  truth.  It  is  also  urged  that  in 
this  position  the  organ  and  the  choir  lead  the  singing  of  the  congre- 
gation more  efficiently.  This  is  not  the  case.  Their  leadership  les- 
sens in  power  with  the  length  of  the  church.  It  is  most  efficient 
when  the  music  of  the  choir  and  organ  proceeds  in  the  same  direction 
as  the  singing  of  the  people;  when  coming  from  behind  the  congre- 
gation it  is  the  background,  and  gathers  up  the  singing  and  holds  it 
together.  Singing  for  entertainment  and  display  is  out  of  place  in 
the  church.  The  choir,  as  a  part  of  the  congregation,  confesses  the 
truth  given  by  God  through  His  Word.  It  does  not  dispense  the 
Word.  The  Word,  the  division  of  the  Word,  the  ministry  of  the 
Word,  and  the  administration  of  the  Word  in  the  Holy  Sacrament, 
must  be  distinguished  as  the  sole  source  of  the  congregation's  life  and 
being.  Neither  should  the  organ  or  the  choir  be  in  the  chancel  nor 
to  the  side  of  it  in  view  of  the  congregation.  This  custom  is  derived 
from  the  Protestant  Episcopal  Church,  which  teaches  that  there  is  a 
distinction  between  clergy  and  laity  and  does  not  hesitate  to  adopt 
the  imitation  of  a  priestly  choir  and  to  throw  the  choir  bet?!r^9Hi  the 
people  and  the  means  of  grace.  In  a  Protestant  Episcopal  church, 
the  worshipers  may  consist  of  clergy,  choir,  and  people.  In  a  Luthe- 
ran church,  only  the  people  are  in  the  presence  of  God ;  the  choir  is 
a  part  of  the  congregation;  the  minister  exercises  the  office  of  the 
Word,  in  which  God  speaks.  There  are  the  same  practical  objections 
to  this  position  as  to  the  position  rejected  in  the  preceding  para- 
graph." 1^0)  "In  a  Lutheran  church  the  only  proper  place  for  organ 
and  singers  is  at  the  end  of  the  church  opi)Osite  the  altar.  In  Angli- 
can and  Episcopal  churches  it  is  perfectly  consistent  with  their  con- 
ception of  the  choir  and  its  functions  to  place  organ  and  singers 
between  the  altar  and  the  congregation,  inasmuch  as  they  regard  the 


170)   Horn,  81.  82.  Cp.  92,  §11;    104,  §6;    Meurer,  Der  Kirchenbau, 
238.  286;  Cram,  Church  Building,  19. 


THE  PARTS  OF  THE  CHURCH  BUILDING. 


165 


choir  in  the  same  light  as  the  Old  Testament  choir  of  Levites,  and  as 
exercising  semipriestly  functions.  But  this  is  not  the  Lutheran  idea. 
With  us  the  choir  should  always  be  regarded  as  belonging  to  the 
universal  priesthood  of  believers,  whose  proper  function  it  is  to  lead 
and  support  the  rest  of  the  congregation,  or  to  alternate  with  it  in 
the  responsive  singing  of  the  Psalms  and  Canticles,  or  to  interpret  to 
the  congregation,  in  musical  form,  such  parts  of  the  liturgy  as  may 
be  assigned  to  it,  e.  g.  the  Antiphons  and  Responsories."  "''^i)  "If,  in 
imitation  of  un-Lutheran  custom,  the  organ  is  placed  by  the  side  of 
the  altar  space  so  as  to  face  the  congregation,  it  speaks  of  human 


TRINITY  CHURCH,  BUFFALO,  N.  Y. 
(General  Council,  United  Lutheran  Church.) 

performance  rather  than  of  divine  grace,  and  to  the  extent  it  does  so 
mars,  even  as  a  decorative  feature,  the  aim  of  the  altar  space  to  em- 
phasize the  grace  of  God.  It  is  argued  that,  if  the  organ  is  in  the 
rear  of  the  congregation,  people  will  turn  around  to  look.  Shall  we, 
then,  make  looking  easy  by  placing  organ  and  choir  in  front?  Many 
improprieties  are  avoided  best  by  placing  organ  and  choir  where  they 
properly  belong."  ^^2)  As  for  the  last  argument  here  mentioned,  the 
great  majority  of  the  people  in  our  congregations  are  fortunately  so 
situated  that  it  is  not  necessary  for  them  to  hear  with  their  eyes,  as 
a  less  fortunate  minority  of  afflicted  people.  If  pastors  and  teachers 
will  only  observe  the  proprieties,  the  other  members  will  readily  take 
the  cue. 


171)  Dr.  J.  F.  Ohl,  in  a  letter  of  July  21,  1917. 

172)  Dr.  C.  Abbetmeyer,  in  Lutheian  Witness,  July  24,  1917. 


106  THE  PASTS  OF  THE  CHURCH  BUILDING. 

The  vestibule  no  longer  has  the  significance  of  the  early  Chris- 
tian Church  as  a  locv^  lugentium.  Nevertheless  it  serves  a  very 
practical  purpose  and  should  receive  due  consideration  in  planning  a 
church.  Some  of  the  dark  and  draughty  halls  that  have  been  honored 
with  the  name  vestibule,  are  comparable  only  to  similar  places  in  our 
older  public  buildings.  The  entrance-hall  to  a  house  of  worship 
should  be  planned  in  strict  conformity  with  the  dignity  and  sublimity 
of  the  house  of  the  Lord.  It  must  be  large  enough  in  proportion  to 
the  size  of  the  church  to  serve  as  an  easy  passage-way  in  either  direc- 
tion, especially  for  egress.  The  fire-laws  in  most  states  will,  of  course, 
demand  other  exits,  usually  one  or  two  in  the  rear,  easy  of  access. 
But  the  main  entrance  leading  from  the  vestibule  will  serve  on  all 
normal  occasions,  and  therefore  the  vestibule  must  serve  the  average 
crowd.  If  the  stairways  are  so  situated  that  they  obstruct  the  pas- 
sage, or  if  the  hall  is  so  narrow  that  the  streams  of  humanity  meet 
in  a  swirling  eddy  which  may  result  in  disagreeable  experiences,  it  is 
most  unpleasant  for  the  attendants.  The  vestibule  may  well  have  an 
area  one-tenth  to  one-eighth  as  large  as  the  auditorium.  It  should  be 
cheerful,  without  the  blatant,  glaring  ostentation  of  the  theater  foyer. 
To  achieve  this  very  desirable  quality  of  cheerfulness,  the  lighting 
should  be  as  ample  as  in  the  nave.  A  tympanum  window  is  not  suf- 
ficient, and  in  case  it  is  used,  it  should  be  supplemented  by  smaller 
windows  on  either  side  of  the  entrance.  The  floor  should  be  level, 
since  the  people  are  usually  so  crowded  that  they  cannot  watch  their 
step.  Sills  should  also  be  avoided  as  much  as  possible,  since  they  are 
apt  to  cause  stumbling.  It  is  essential  that  the  floor  be  made  strong, 
with  a  carrying  strength  at  least  twice  that  of  the  auditorium  floor. 
A  fine  plan  is  to  make  it  fire-proof,  if  possible,  or  at  least  of  slow- 
burning  construction.  The  latter  object  can  be  attained  by  using 
metal  lath  on  the  ceiling  beneath  and  placing  steam-pipes,  electric 
wires,  etc.,  in  fire-proof  pipes  or  covering.  An  entire  cement  con- 
struction is  considered  fire-proof.  It  may  be  covered  with  a  layer  of 
cement  smoothed  down  to  a  floor  finish,  or  by  terrazo,  mosaic  work, 
and  other  durable  materials.  Xo  matter  which  material  is  used,  the 
requirement  of  easy  cleaning  should  not  be  overlooked.  In  very  wet 
weather,  both  in  summer  and  winter,  a  thorough  cleaning  of  the 
vestibule,  even  between  services,  may  be  a  matter  of  sanitarj'  precau- 
tion. The  vestibule  will  contain  little  ornamentation  beside  the  tint- 
ing and  frescoing  of  the  walls.  One  thing,  however,  should  be  found 
in  every  vestibule,  namely,  a  bulletin  board  for  the  congregation.  In 
many  congregations,  the  custom  still  obtains  of  having  all  announce- 
ments, even  the  most  trivial,  made  by  the  pastor  from  the  lectern  and 
even  from  the  pulpit.    Any  announcements  outside  of  those  pertain- 


THE  PAETS  OF  THE  CHURCH  BUILDING. 


167 


ing  to  the  ministerial  office,  being  connected  with  prayers,  interces- 
sions, and  thanksgivings,  such  as  churchings,  funerals,  births,  mar- 
riages, services,  etc.,  are  a  desecration  of  the  space  reserved  for  the 
means  of  grace.  The  pastor  is  not  the  town  crier,  and  many  of  the 
announcements  made  are  altogether  out  of  harmony  with  the  dignity 
of  the  church  services.  Let  all  notices  of  meetings,  lost  and  found 
articles,  etc.,  etc.,  be  posted  on  an  appropriate  bulletin  board  fastened 
in  a  conspicuous  place  in  the  vestibule,  so  that  every  one  that  enters 
may  readily  see  and  read,  and  our  services  will  gain  in  beauty  and 
dignity  by  the  omission  of  unchurchly  announcements. 


ST.   JOHN'S   CHURCH,   CHARLESTON,    S.    C. 
(United   Synod  South,   United  Lutheran  Church.) 

A  tower  should  never  be  omitted  in  building  a  Lutheran  church. 
And  if  this  is  crowned  with  a  spire,  the  symbolism  of  which  has  al- 
ways been  recognized,  the  effect  will  be  all  the  greater.  There  is  a 
certain  factor  of  incompleteness  about  a  mere  tower,  even  if  sur- 
mounted by  slender  turrets,  which  somehow  renders  it  incongruous. 
The  battlemented  towers  of  many  churches  with  Norman  characteris- 
tics remind  one  more  strongly  of  a  castle  or  of  a  fortress  than  of  a 
church.  A  graceful  spire  rising  from  a  strongly-built  tower  is  always 
a  pleasing,  and  often  an  inspiring  sight.  The  tower  will,  of  course, 
be  an  integral  part  of  the  church,  although  it  will  not  be  built  flush 


168  .  THE  PARTS  OF  THE  CHUBCH  BUILDING. 

with  the  fagade,  but  stand  out  one-fourth  to  one-half  its  width.  "The 
tower,  as  a  sign  and  summons,  stands  properly  over  the  chief  entrance, 
at  the  west.  In  spite  of  all  attempts  to  find  a  proper  position,  as 
early  as  the  seventh  century,  therefore  long  before  Leo  III,  that  over 
the  west  portal  became  the  favorite  and  almost  the  rule.  The  few  ex- 
ceptions were  due  either  to  necessity  or  to  the  incompleteness  of  the 
building,  or  like  the  double  towers  at  the  choir,  which  were  derived 
from  Cluny  and  were  of  monkish  origin.  Therefore  another  position 
of  the  chief  tower  is  to  be  allowed  only  to  local  necessities."  i'^^)  An 
exception  due  to  such  a  consideration  may  well  be  made  in  the  ease 
of  a  church  which  is  not  situated  upon  a  large  open  site,  but  at  a 
street-corner,  with  its  principal  view  and  approach  from  the  comer 
diagonally  opposite.  In  such  a  case  the  position  of  the  tower  and 
spire  at  the  corner  of  the  church  may  very  well  be  justified,  since  it 
can  fulfill  its  duty  of  guiding  and  summoning  better  in  that  case. 
In  such  an  event,  when  the  church  is  small,  the  corresponding  comer 
on  the  other  side  of  the  church  building  receives  a  smaller  tower  or 
ornamental  turret,  to  preserve  the  balance.  In  larger  churches,  two 
towers  of  equal  height  and  identical  construction  are  erected  at  the 
two  western  corners.  If  the  work  is  properly  done,  the  effect  is  most 
imposing.  The  cost,  however,  is  an  item  which  is  apt  to  discourage 
many  congregations,  for  towers  and  spires  Are  very  expensive.  The 
entire  tower  must  be  buttressed  very  firmly,  since  in  most  cases  it  is 
intended  to  include  the  belfry  and  must  bear  the  weight  of  the  bells 
as  well  as  that  of  the  spire.  The  careful  anchoring  of  the  spire  in 
the  walls  of  the  tower  is  an  essential  point,  since  the  stress  to  which 
it  is  exposed,  even  in  a  mild  wind,  is  one  whose  force  is  generally 
underestimated.  The  belfry  of  the  tower,  if  it  is  to  serve  the  purpose 
well,  should  be  situated  above  the  roof,  in  order  that  the  sound  of  the 
pealing  bell  or  bells  may  travel  without  hindrance  in  every  direction. 
It  is  hardly  necessary  to  add  that  the  architecture  of  the  tower  must 
harmonize  perfectly  with  that  of  the  rest  of  the  building.  It  will 
usually  be  a  strong  test  of  the  architect's  ability  to  plan  the  tower  in 
such  a  way  as  to  give  it  the  appearance  of  an  integral  part  of  the 
church  and  also  preserve  its  solidity  and  beauty.  In  case  the  tower 
is  at  the  corner  of  the  church  which  stands  at  the  intersection  of  two 
streets,  it  is  altogether  permissible  to  have  a  side  entrance,  but  not 
the  main  portal,  here.  But  this  should  be  the  case  in  large  churches 
only,  and  even  then  it  would  be  preferable  to  have  the  main  entrance 
as  the  only  entrance  in  the  west.  If  there  is  a  basement  entrance  in 
the  tower,  it  should  be  located  below  the  level  of  the  ground,  in  order 
not  to  disturb  the  harmony  of  the  building. 


173)  Mothes,  quoted  in  Horn.  112. 


THE  PARTS  OF  THE  CHURCH  BUILDING. 


169 


The  vestry  should  never  be  planned  as  an  integral  part  of  the 
auditorium,  though  it  should  receive  careful  attention  in  the  dispo- 
sition of  the  various  parts.  It  must  never  be  located  behind  the  apse, 
since  the  sanctuary  is  the  head  of  the  church,  and  its  symbolism  would 
be  spoiled  very  decidedly  by  such  an  arrangement.  Neither  should  it 
be  a  mere  screened  comer  of  the  nave.  Its  purpose  is  such  as  to  de- 
mand a  separate  room  off  the  chancel,  the  southern  room  usually  be- 
ing chosen.  Here  there  is  direct  communicatiq^,  with  the  altar  space, 
and  there  may  be  direct  communication  also  with  the  nave.  The 
latter  consideration  shovild  never  be  overlooked.  It  is  often  neces- 
sary for  the  deacons  or  other  church  oflBcers,  and  sometimes  for  other 
members  of  the  congregation,  to  speak  to  the  pastor  during  services, 
and  since  it  is  not  fitting  for  the  altar  space  to  be  made  a  passage- 
way, and  since  conditions  of  the  weather  often  make  it  impleasant  to 


ft- 


mmn  -tTii 


tt^^Ml 


FIRST  LUTHERAN   CHURCH,   RICHMOND,    VA. 
(United   Synod  South,   United   Lutheran  Church.) 

go  around  outside,  a  door  leading  from  the  nave  or  transept  to  the 
vestry  should  be  provided.  The  vestry,  as  its  name  indicates,  is  the 
room  where  the  vestments  of  the  pastor  and  also  those  of  the  altar 
and  pulpit  are  kept,  and  where  the  pastor  puts  on  his  clerical  gar- 
ment. The  room  will  therefore  have  a  large  wardrobe  or  closet  for 
keeping  all  the  vestments  secure  and  clean.  This  is  true  of  the  pas- 
tor's gown  and  the  bands  as  well  as  of  the  various  paraments.  The 
cabinets  and  drawers  may  easily  be  made  moth-proof,  a  very  import- 
ant consideration  when  one  reflects  upon  the  costliness  of  the  cloths. 
There  may  also  be  a  cabinet,  or  preferably  a  safe,  for  storing  the 
Eucharistic  vessels.  But  all  other  things  which  are  apt  to  accumu- 
late in  a  church  building  should  be  kept  out  of  the  vestry.  It  is  most 
distressing  to  find  dilapidated  crosses,  broken  statuary,  remains  of 
Christmas  ornaments,  Sunday-school  pamphlets,  catalogs,  bric-a-brac, 
and  what-not  in  the  vestry,  especially  if  this  motley  collection  be 
covered  with  the  dust  of  weeks,  months,  and  even  years.    The  saying; 


170  THE  PARTS  OF  THE  CHURCH  BUILDING. 

"A  church  is  no  cleaner  than  its  vestry,"  is  one  which  often  applies 
with  peculiar  force.  The  vestry  will  have,  as  a  matter  of  course,  a 
table  for  the  pastor  and  several  chairs,  also  a  small  bookcase  for  the 
various  church  and  liturgical  books.  A  wash-basin  is  by  no  means  a 
superfluous  addition,  and  a  lavatory  off  the  vestry  is  still  better.  It 
is  hardly  necessary  to  add  that  the  vestry  should  be  large  enough  for 
emergency  meetings  of  the  deacons  or  other  church  officers,  though  it 
should  not  be  made  iSe  regular  assembly  room  for  such  purposes. 

A  retiring-room  for  women,  especially  for  such  as  have  little 
children  with  them,  should  always  be  planned  in  building  a  Lutheran 
church.  Unfortunately,  the  custom  of  frowning  upon  the  presence  of 
little  children  is  growing  in  our  congr^ations.  But  this  is  a  matter 
to  be  deeply  deplored.  In  many  cases,  it  is  impossible  for  a  family 
to  have  a  special  nurse  girl  for  the  children,  and  most  congregations 
have  not  yet  provided  a  nurse  or  deaconess  to  have  charge  of  the  little 
ones  in  a  room  of  the  parish  house  during  services.  But  both  mother 
and  father,  with  the  rest  of  the  family,  should  attend  services.  In 
many  congregations  in  the  country,  where  it  is  the  custom  for  the 
whole  family  to  attend,  no  one  pays  any  attention  to  the  little  ones, 
unless  their  continued  wailing  or  loud  crying  drowns  out  the  speaker's 
voice.  In  such  a  case,  the  mother  (or  father)  could  very  well  take 
the  baby  to  the  retiring-room  and  perhaps  in  a  few  minutes  succeed 
in  restoring  the  Sabbath  calm.  So  much  the  mothers,  on  their  part, 
should  be  willing  to  observe.  If  the  retiring-room  is  connected  with 
the  auditorium  and  also  with  the  vestibule,  the  amount  of  disturbance 
will  be  reduced  to  a  minimum. 

So  far  as  the  exterior  of  the  church  is  concerned,  the  elaborate- 
ness of  the  ornamentation  will  depend  partly  upon  the  style  of  archi- 
tecture and  partly  upon  the  contemplated  cost.  The  western  fagade 
will  usually  present  the  most  attractive  side  of  the  building.  In  most 
cases,  a  rose  window  of  proper  proportions  and  beautiful  design  will 
do  much  to  enhance  the  inviting  appearance  of  the  church.  It  must 
not  be  forgotten,  however,  that  a  rose  window  is  a  window  placed 
into  the  wall  for  the  purpose  of  admitting  light.  If  it  is  hidden,  on 
the  inside,  by  the  balcony  or  gallery  joists,  or  by  the  ceiling  trusses, 
it  offends  against  the  requirement  of  honesty  and  therefore  has  no 
''reason  for  being."  The  main  portal  in  the  center  of  the  western 
wall  may  be  a  single  large  opening,  in  small  churches,  or  a  series  of 
three  doors,  under  one  arch,  in  large  churches.  If  the  columns  of  the 
opening,  the  tympanum,  and  the  spandrils  receive  the  attention  they 
deserve,  for  fine  stone  carving,  the  resulting  effect  will  well  repay  the 
expenditure.  The  doors  will  rarely,  under  the  present  circumstances, 
be  of  cast  bronze  or  decorated  with  the  elaborate  carving  of  the  Mid- 


THE  FURNITURE  OF  THE  CHANCEL  AND  THE  AUDITORIUM.     171 

die  Ages,  but  everj'  congregation  will  try  to  have  massive  doors  with 
appropriate  hardware  or  artistic  dinanderie.  The  addition  of  porches 
to  serve  as  shelters  for  the  main  portals  will  aid  in  beautifying  the 
facade  only  when  they  are  planned  in  harmony  with  the  rest  of  the 
church  by  the  architect. 

The  basement  of  the  churches  has  been  treated  with  varying 
favor,  according  to  the  position  of  the  congregation.  If  the  Srniday- 
school  could  be  accommodated  in  the  parish  house  or  in  the  rooms  of 
the  day-school,  little  attention  was  paid  to  the  basement.  But  if  this 
was  of  necessity  used  for  Sunday-school  purposes,  as  well  as  for  meet- 
ings of  a  social  nature  in  the  course  of  the  week,  it  was  planned  as 
carefully  as  the  auditorium.  In  many  cases,  the  greater  part  of  the 
basement  is  now  used  for  a  hall  or  lecture  room,  smaller  rooms  being 
provided  for  kitchen  and  women's  parlor,  and  for  meetings  of  the 
various  church  societies.  Just  how  much  emphasis  the  individual 
congregation  wishes  to  bestow  upon  the  equipment  of  the  basement, 
it  must  decide  after  its  own  circumstances.  The  number  of  exits 
will,  in  most  cases,  be  fixed  by  the  building  laws  of  the  respective  state. 

The  foregoing  considerations  and  suggestions  agree,  in  many 
particulars,  with  the  resolutions  of  the  so-called  Eisenach  Regulative, 
of  June  5,  1861,  the  Dresden  Regulative  of  1856,  and  the  so-called 
Wiesbaden  Program.i'^*)  There  are  a  number  of  divergences,  made 
necessary,  in  part,  by  the  conditions  and  circumstances  of  the  Luthe- 
ran Church  in  America,  and  partly  by  the  fact  that  some  progress 
has  been  made  in  the  symbolical  application  of  many  requirements. 
The  guiding  principle  was  always  to  avoid  the  strictness  of  dead  for- 
malism, thus  allowing  the  proper  latitude  for  the  application  of  the 
principles  which  are  essentially  distinctive  of  the  Lutheran  Church. 


CHAPTER  3. 
The  Furniture  of  the  Chancel  and  the  Auditorium. 

That  the  various  parts  of  a  Lutheran  church  building  should  be 
in  perfect  harmony  with  each  other  is  an  aesthetic  requirement  whose 
necessity  appeals  readily  to  most  people.  But  incidentally,  many 
church  members  forget  that  the  factor  of  harmony  in  the  interior 
furnishing  and  decorating  of  a  church  is  just  as  essential.  Even  the 
most  unobserving  layman  must  feel  the  incongruity,  when  lines  of 
various  and  diverse  styles  are  brought  together  by  application  of  a 


174)  Cp.  Schultze,  Das  evangelische  Kirchengebaeude,  Anhang;  Meu- 
rer,  Der  Kirchenbau,  116 — 118;  Horn,  Lutheran  Principles  of  Church 
Architecture,  84 — 96. 


172     THE  FURNITURE  OF  THE  CHANCEL  AND  THE  AUDITORIUM. 


rude  force  calculated  to  stifle  their  protest,  but  in  reality  causing  the 
clash  to  become  more  apparent.  A  little  care  in  the  planning  of  the 
proper  furniture  or  in  the  selection  of  the  appointments  of  a  Lutheran 


A   TUUUK    GUTHIC    ALTAK. 

(Courtesy  W.   &  E.   Schmidt  Co.,  Milwaukee.) 

house  of  worship  may  make  all  the  difference  as  to  whether  the  har- 
mony of  all  subsidiary  factors  will  be  conducive  to  restful  edification 
and  meditation  or  to  disquieting  excitement.  "Let  all  things  be  done 
decently  and  in  order,"  1  Cor.  14,  26. 

In  naming  the  altar  as  the  first  piece  of  furniture  in  a  Lutheran 


THE  FURNITURE  OF  THE  CHANCEL  AND  THE  AUDITORIUM.     173 


church,  we  do  not  wish  to  be  understood  as  though  the  Lutheran 
Church  appends  a  special  intrinsic  value  to  the  altar.  We  have  no 
formulas  for  anointing  or  dedicating  altars  after  the  mailner  of  the 
Catholic  Church.  Neither  do  we  ascribe  to  altars  which  are  situated 
in  dedicated  churches  any  special  merits  which  make  them  essentially 
diiferent  from  other  tables.  On  the  other  hand,  the  Lutheran  Church 
does  not  accede  to  the  iconoclastic  tendencies  of  the  majority  of  the 
Reformed  churches  which  object  to  the  very  name  "altar"  and  studi- 
ously avoid  even  the  semblance  of  the  Catholic  sacramental  table. 


A  SMALL  GOTHIC  ALTAR. 
(Courtesy  W.   &  E.   Schmidt  Co.,  Milwaukee.) 

We  reject  the  idea  of  transubstantiation,  but  do  not  go  to  the  oppo- 
site extreme  of  rationalistic  explanation.  The  altar  of  a  Lutheran 
church  is  a  confession  of  the  real  presence  in  the  Sacrament.  There- 
fore the  altar  does  not  make  the  Sacrament,  as  the  Catholic  idea  has 
it,  but  the  Sacrament  makes  the  altar.  This  is  the  reason  why  we 
consider  the  altar  a  sanctified  place  in  the  church,  even  more  so,  in 
a  way,  than  the  pulpit,  because  the  person  of  the  minister  is  more 
prominent  in  preaching  than  in  administering  the  Holy  Communion. 
The  altar  is  the  Lord's  table,  where  the  great  mystery  of  the  com- 
munion of  Christ's  body  and  blood,  in  a  sacramental  manner,  witli 
the  bread  and  wine,  is  celebrated,  and,  through  the  consecrated  ele- 


174     THE  F[TRNITURE  OF  THE  CHANCEL  AND  THE  AUDITORIUM. 

ments,  His  communion  with  His  people.  "Quid  est  altare  nisi  sedes 
et  corporis  et  sanguinis  Christi,"  writes  Optatus  of  Mileve.  And 
Ambrose  calls  it  "locus,  ubi  Christus  hostia  est."  i'^^)  The  altar  is 
thus  primarily  the  Eucharistic  table,  the  table  of  the  Lord,  but  it  is 
also  the  place  of  prayer  and  benediction,  and  thus  has  a  sound 
"reason  for  being"  in  the  liturgical  sense.  All  the  various  sacrificial 
acts,  the  acts  of  prayer,  which  the  pastor  performs  in  the  name  of 
the  congregation,  are  originally  parts  of  the  liturgy  of  the  missa 
catechumenorum  et  fidelium,  and  therefore  the  general  benediction, 
as  well  as  the  special  forms  of  blessing  used  for  confirmation,  con- 
fession, marriage,  ordination,  etc.,  are  closely  connected  with  these 
and  are  spoken  at  the  altar.  Even  the  General  Confession  and  the 
Great  Prayer  should  not  be  made  from  the  pulpit,  as  was  the  custom 


ALTAR  WITH  CROSS   AND   CANDELABRA. 
(Courtesy  W.   &  E.   Schmidt  Co.,  Milwaukee.) 

in  parts  of  southern  Germany,  from  where  it  was  introduced  into 
America,  but  from  the  altar.^'^^)  Rightly  understood,  then,  the  words 
of  Cram  apply  also  to  a  Lutheran  church :  "Unless  the  altar  is  treated 
with  due  r^ard,  unless  it  has  its  proper  relation  to  the  rest  of  the 
fabric,  then  every  effort  to  obtain  a  church  that  is  a  living  thing,  is 
vain  and  worse  than  vain."  ^''7)  "The  Supper  is,  in  our  conception, 
not  merely  a  memorial-supper  of  believers  among  themselves,  nor  a 
memorial  of  Christ's  offering  and  a  thanksgiving  for  it,  but  a  sacra- 
ment, a  distribution  of  the  gracious  gift  of  the  inmost  union  with 
the  Lord  in  the  new  covenant  sealed  by  that  offering;  and  has  its 
roots  not  in  what  we  do,  but  in  what  the  Lord  does  to  us.  Therefore 
the  altar  is  primarily  the  table  of  the  Lord;  and  not  only  this,  but 
also  the  place  of  this  inmost  communion,  of  the  thanksgiving,  of  the 
unspoken  vow  involved  in  such  a  commvmion  of  fidelity  to  this  cove- 


175)  Kliefoth,  Die  urspruenglicJie  Gottesdienstordnung,  U,  226.  237. 

176)  Meurer,  Der  Kirchenbau,  227.  228. 

177)  Church  Building,  Chapter  VII. 


THE  FURNITURE  OF  THE  CHANCEL  AND  THE  AUDITORIUM.     175 

nant,  and  of  further  rites  of  iniation,  and  of  vows  of  confirmandi, 
bridal  pairs,  ordinandi,  etc.,  of  benedictions,  blessings  for  those  who 
offer,  celebrate,  and  vow;  for  the  whole  congregation,  therefore,  not 
as  a  place  of  offering  in  the  heathen  sense.  Both  its  form  and  ma- 
terial should  be  monumental,  if  possible  of  stone;  although,  because 
it  is  a  table  and  is  developed  from  a  table,  a  solid  and  thorough  con- 
struction of  wood  is  not  excluded.  It  should  be  of  a  table  form,  should 
not  be  formed  like  a  grave  in  reference  to  the  Risen  One;  nor  like  a 
hearth,  as  the  heathen  and  Jewish  altars  for  burnt  offerings  were.  .  . 
It  does  not  stand  like  a  Catholic  grave-altar  or  mass-altar  or  lay- 
altar  or  cross-altar,  against  the  wall,  but,  like  the  old  Christian  table- 


A  SIMPLE  BAPTISMAL  FONT. 
(Courtesy  W.  &  E.   Schmidt  Co.,  Milwaukee.) 

altar  and  the  high-altar  that  grew  out  of  this  and  afterwards  was 
taken  from  the  laity,  it  should  stand  free.  To  put  the  altar  against 
the  wall  is  a  return  to  Catholic  ways,  just  as  is  its  position  before  a 
windowless  wall  in  a  dark  chancel."  i''*)  So  far  as  materials  are  con- 
cerned, construction  of  sculptured  stone  or  perhaps  even  of  marble, 
inlaid  with  precious  stones  and  gold,  which  some  wealthy  congrega- 
tions can  well  afford,  is  out  of  the  question  for  the  majority  of  Lu- 
theran parish  churches.  In  such  a  case,  however,  hard-wood  altars 
which  are  appropriately  carved  and  given  a  natural  finish,  will  prove 
very  satisfactory.  In  this  case  the  builders  should  guard  against  the 
effect  of  excessive  sombemess  in  the  chancel,  offsetting  the  darker 
color  of  the  natural  grain  by  a  lighter  wall  color.  In  many  instances, 
even  a  hard-wood  altar  will  be  found  too  expensive,  and  one  built  of 
soft  wood,  painted  or  enameled  white,,  with  gold  trimming,  is  alto- 


178)  Mothes,  quoted  in  Horn,  105.  106. 


176     THE  FURNITURE  OF  THE  CHANCEL  AND  THE  AUDITORIUM. 

gether  permissible.  For  here  the  lamp  of  truth  and  honesty  is  not 
violated,  since,  as  Ruskin  says,  "the  gilding  in  architecture  is  no  de- 
ceit, because  it  is  therein  not  understood  for  gold,"  and  so  also  the 
white  enamel  is  not  understood  for  marble.  Besides,  the  effect  of  the 
pure  white  altar  is  eminently  suitable  for  the  sanctuary,  and  agrees 
well  with  the  purity  of  the  Lamb  that  was  slain.  No  matter  what 
material  is  chosen  for  the  altar,  a  reredos,  usually  in  triptych  form, 
is  always  appropriate.  It  should  be  built  so  that  its  lower  part  in- 
cludes a  shelf  for  crucifix  or  cross  and  candelebra,  since  the  mensa  or 
plate  of  the  altar  is  reserved  for  the  service  books  and  the  Eucharistic 
vessels.  If  there  is  an  altar  painting  or  a  statue,  these  should  be 
placed  high  enough,  in  order  not  to  interfere  with  the  cross.  As  the 
frontale  of  the  altar  may  be  ornamented  with  carved  or  sculptured 
work  (Last  Supper,  Lamb  of  God,  vine,  chalice.  Alpha  and  Omega, 
etc.),  so  the  super-frontale  looks  well  with  a  certain  amount  of  dig- 
nified decoration.  The  central  panel  may  receive  an  altar  painting, 
preferably  one  with  special  reference  to  the  grace  of  Christ.  Or  it 
may  be  built  in  the  form  of  a  niche  to  hold  the  statue  of  Christ,  in  a 
posture  of  benediction  or  invitation.  If  texts  are  desired  in  the  carv- 
ing of  the  altar,  the  suggestion  of  Luther  in  regard  to  Ps.  Ill,  4 
might  well  be  remembered,  or  a  simple  Sanctus,  Sanctus,  Sanctus  — 
Holy,  Holy,  Holy  may  be  used.  Other  emblems,  types,  and  symbols 
will  be  discussed  below,  in  a  special  chapter. 

The  pulpit  will  agree  with  the  altar  in  style,  materials,  and  con- 
struction. The  usual  form  of  the  pulpit  is  octagonal,  very  seldom 
round  or  square.  Its  diameter  should  not  be  less  than  a  yard,  and  its 
(solid)  balustrade  may  be  four  feet  high,  but  no  more.  The  pulpit 
rises  from  a  single  shaft  or  stem,  which  may  be  decorated  as  richly 
as  the  harmony  will  permit.  The  panels  of  the  railing  are  often 
carved  in  very  rich  effects  or  constructed  in  the  form  of  niches,  with 
statues  of  the  four  evangelists  or  the  four  great  prophets.  If  the  re- 
quirements of  acoustics  have  been  properly  observed,  the  sounding- 
board  above  the  pulpit,  which  is  often  useless  and  still  oftener  dis- 
figuring, may  well  be  dispensed  with.  Where  it  is  necessary,  it  should 
be  constructed  in  perfect  agreement  with  the  rest  of  the  furniture. 
The  height  of  the  pulpit,  which  in  a  measure  will  be  governed  by  the 
construction  of  galleries,  if  such  are  demanded,  should  be  as  low  as 
possible.  Schultze  gives  the  maximum  height  as  four  meters  (about 
thirteen  feet)  from  the  floor  of  the  church  to  the  floor  of  the  pulpit. 
With  the  more  general  introduction  of  inclined  floors  and  the  cutting- 
down  of  balconies  to  the  irreducible  minimum,  the  old  swallow-nest 
type  of  pulpit  is  gradually  becoming  obsolete.  It  was  actually  a  tor- 
ture for  the  people  in  the  front  pews  to  crane  their  necks  in  the  piti- 


THE  FURNITURE  OP  THE  CHANCEL  AND  THE  AUDITORIUM.      177 

ful  effort  to  see  the  speaker,  no  less  than  for  the  pastor  with  an  in- 
clination toward  dizzy  spells.  A  very  practical  advantage  of  the 
lower  pulpit  is  this  that  the  minister  speaks  up  to  the  people,  with 
his  larynx  free  and  unrestricted,  instead  of  down  to  the  audience, 
with  that  very  necessarj'  organ  constricted  and  sorely  hampered  by 
the  effort.  A  noted  specialist  has  called  attention  to  the  fact  that 
lawyers'  chronic  hoarseness  is  almost  unknown,  while  "minister's 
sore  throat"  is  a  universal  malady,  and  he  ascribes  this  difference  to 
the  fact  that  the  lawyer  throws  back  his  head  in  addressing  the  judge 
and  jury,  while  the  minister  bends  down,  compressing  his  throat,  in 
addressing  his  congregation.  A  suggestion  has  lately  been  made  that 
the  head  of  the  minister,  when  he  is  standing  on  his  pulpit,  should  be 
on  the  same  level  with  that  of  a  person  sitting  in  the  last  row  of  the 


^'^fc- 


WOOD   LECTERN. 
(Courtesy  W.  &  E.   Schmidt  Co.,   Milwaukee.) 

auditorium.  The  greatest  difficulty  has  been  experienced  in  finding 
the  proper  position  for  the  pulpit.  Some  writers  have  urged  with 
the  greatest  pertinacity  that  the  altar,  for  theoretical,  aesthetic,  and 
practical  reasons,  ought  to  find  its  place  exactly  at  the  east  end  of 
the  church  axis.  Referring  to  the  practice  of  the  early  Church,  some 
have  advocated  the  return  to  the  position  behind  the  altar,  correspond- 
ing to  the  bishop's  cathedra.  In  that  case,  the  reredos  is  to  be  omit- 
ted. But  here  the  preacher  is  separated  from  his  hearers  by  a  great 
open  space,  instead  of  standing  in  the  midst  of  his  congregation.  In 
many  churches,  the  pulpit  is  above  the  altar,  the  central  niche  of  the 
reredos,  in  some  instances,  being  used  as  opening,  and  the  platform 
being  on  a  level  with  the  mensa.  In  other  churches,  the  pulpit  or 
pidpit  desk  has  been  placed  in  front  of  the  altar,  at  the  opening  of 
Kretzmann,  Christian  Art  12 


178     THE  FURNITURE  OF  THE  CHANCEL  AND  THE  AUDITORIUM. 

the  apse,  below  the  triumphal  arch.  Here  it  obstructs  the  view  of 
the  altar,  and  the  concealment  of  the  altar  by  the  pulpit  will  always 
be  offensive.  Such  an  arrangement  almost  compels  the  erection  of  a 
second  altar  in  front  of  the  pulpit,  for  the  liturgical  service,  which  in 
turn  savors  of  the  high  altar  and  low  altar  distinction.  Besides, 
though  the  altar  in  the  Lutheran  Church  has  no  inherent  sanctity, 
yet  any  of  the  positions  mentioned  interferes  materially  with  its  dig- 
nity. So  there  is  left  for  the  pulpit  only  the  position  at  the  jimction 
of  the  apse  and  the  nave,  on  the  south  side  of  the  triumphal  arch,  for 
practical  reasons  and  for  liturgical  considerations,  as  Meurer  points 
out.  The  speaker  is  nearer  to  his  audience  and,  if  he  has  a  wall  at 
his  back,  the  acoustics  should  be  excellent.  He  is  also,  as  the  witness 
of  the  Gospel,  standing  in  their  very  midst.  He  is  not  a  pulpit  orator, 
separated  from  the  members  of  the  congregation  by  the  special  dis- 
tinction of  an  anointed  clergy,  but  the  servant  of  Christ  and  witness 
to  the  congregation  who,  by  their  invitation  and  call,  expoimds  to 
them  the  faith  which  binds  all  together.  There  need  be  no  offense 
against  architectural  symmetry,  if  the  pulpit  is  treated  as  a  neces- 
sary, integral  member  of  the  building.  There  is  an  ancient  tradition 
that  the  preacher  should  not  make  his  appearance  quam  deus  ex 
machina,  mentioned  by  both  Meurer  and  Mothes;  therefore  the  steps 
leading  to  the  pulpit  should  be  at  least  partially  visible.i'^^)  All  these 
requirements  may  be  met  very  easily  by  placing  the  pulpit  as  indi- 
cated in  the  accompanying  figure  (p.  148),  with  the  steps  leading  up  to 
it  from  the  west  door  of  the  vestry.  The  symmetry  may  be  preserved 
by  having  a  platform  for  the  lectern  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  tri- 
umphal arch.  This  will  give  the  additional  advantage  of  leaving  the 
view  of  the  altar  entirely  unobstructed. 

The  baptismal  font  should  have  its  definite,  permanent  position 
in  the  church.  It  is  decidedly  against  all  liturgical  usage  to  have  a 
movable  font  or,  what  is  still  worse,  to  place  a  basin  on  the  altar,  as 
required.  The  font  must  not  be  inside  the  sanctuary  proi)er,  for  then 
it  not  only  loses  its  significance,  but  also  obstructs  the  view  of  the 
altar  and  often  hinders  the  free  movements  of  the  communicants.  It 
may  be  placed  at  the  entrance  to  the  apse,  preferably  on  a  small  ex- 
tension or  platform.  In  this  way,  it  readily  signifies  the  preliminary 
step  to  the  admission  into  the  full  communion  of  the  congregation. 
The  best  position,  however,  is  that  discussed  above,  in  a  special  bap- 
tistery or  baptismal  chapel,  where  every  part  of  the  symbolism  may 
find  its  expression,  and  yet  nothing  interfere  with  the  liturgical  func- 


179)  Cp.  Ziegeler,  Einfuehruny  in  die  christliche  Kirchenhaukunst,  68; 
Meurer,  212 — 214;  Schultze,  Das  evangelische  Kirchetigebaeude,  100;  Horn, 
90—92.  112,  113;   Kliefoth.  IV.  150. 


THE  FURNITURE  OP  THE  CHANCEL  AND  THE  AUDITORIUM.     179 

tions.  So  far  as  the  material  is  concerned  from  which  the  font  is  to 
be  constructed,  metal  and  especially  stone  are  far  preferable  to  wood. 
In  former  times,  both  in  England  and  on  the  Continent,  no  one  would 
have  thought  of  a  wooden  font,  as  also  the  German  name  "Taufstein" 
indicates.  Of  all  the  fonts  which  Paley  describes  in  his  book  there 
is  none  that  is  constructed  of  wood.  We  have  accounts  of  a  number 
of  beautiful  fonts  cast  in  dinanderie.  A  requirement  is  that  this  in- 
dispensable piece  of  furniture  be  monumental,  like  the  altar,  as  Cram 
demands.  Some  beautiful  fonts  are  made  of  marble,  with  a  cover  of 
like  material  or  of  ebony-wood,  with  brass  or  gold  ornament.  They 
may  now  be  purchased  to  suit  every  need,  taste,  and  purse.  Their 
form  also  varies  considerably.  The  simplest  one  is  that  of  a  base  with 
pedestal  and  basin  holder.    The  sculpture  work  and  inscriptions  var5% 


BRASS   EAGLE   LECTERN. 
(Courtesy  W.   &  E.   Schmidt  Co.,  Milwaukee.) 

the  verses  "Suffer  the  little  children  to  come  unto  Me,"  and  "Feed 
My  lambs,"  being  used  in  many  instances.  Since  Thorwaldsen 
sculptured  his  "Baptismal  Angel,"  it  has  become  a  favorite,  many 
churches  having  copies  made  for  fonts.  The  warning  of  Meurer,  that 
the  sculpture  work  of  the  font,  especially  as  to  foliage,  should  not  be 
too  elaborate,  may  well  be  heeded  in  our  days,  when  certain  donors 
select  very  extravagant  models  in  order  to  emphasize  the  donation. 

The  lectern  is  an  almost  indispensable  piece  of  altar  furniture, 
taking  the  place  of  the  ancient  ambon  for  the  reading  of  the  lessons. 
It  is  not  in  conformity  with  the  dignity  of  the  church  to  place  a 
music  rack  at  the  entrance  to  the  apse,  nor  should  the  baptismal  font 
be  used  as  a  stand  for  that  purpose.  A  special  desk  should  be  pro- 
vided, harmonizing  with  the  other  furniture  of  the  chancel.  It  en- 
ables the  pastor  to  make  the  lesson  readings  more  distinct  and  loud. 


180     THE  FURNITTJBE  OF  THE  CHANCEL  AND  THE  AUDITORIUM. 

since  he  is  nearer  to  the  congregation,  and  it  permits  him  to  rest  the 
heavy  Bible  on  a  stand,  thus  relieving  him  of  its  unpleasant  weight. 
By  introducing  the  lectern  and  giving  it  a  permanent  position,  the 
liturgy  gains  in  vividness  and  therefore  in  effectiveness.  There  are 
many  wooden  reading  desks  in  use  at  present  which  are  very  beauti- 
ful on  account  of  their  effective  simplicity.  Much  more  appropriate, 
however,  are  such  as  are  carved  from  marble  or  cast  in  dinanderie. 
A  favorite  form  for  the  reading  desk  of  the  lectern  is  that  of  an 
eagle,  with  wings  partly  extended.  Others  have  the  four  evangelists 
forming  the  pedestal.  More  elaborate  designs  may  be  found  in  many 
churches  of  the  Romanesque  and  Gothic  periods.  The  lectern  will, 
of  course,  be  used  by  the  lay  reader,  in  the  absence  of  the  pastor,  for 
the  reading  of  the  sermon.  Where  the  old  undignified  custom  still 
obtains  of  making  announcements  of  every  kind  in  the  church,  this 
should  at  least  not  be  done  from  the  pulpit  or  from  the  altar  plat- 
form, but  from  the  lectern. 

The  furniture  proper  for  the  altar  space  does  not  include  a  chair 
or  a  set  of  chairs  for  the  clergy,  as  though  they  had  a  right  to  a  seat 
apart  during  the  entire  service.  The  pastor  should  occupy  the  altar 
space  only  when  he  is  officiating,  "that  the  impression  of  God's  gra- 
cious presence,  which  the  altar  space  is  intended  to  convey,  may  re- 
main dominant."  i^o)  If  the  pastor  does  not  care  to  use  the  vestry 
during  the  pauses  of  his  ministry,  as  a  place  for  prayerful  medita- 
tion, he  may  sit  with  the  congregation,  to  which  he  belongs,  or  sedilia 
may  be  provided  at  the  entrance  to  the  apse. 

While  the  mensa  of  the  altar  is  reserved  for  the  Bible,' the  litur- 
gical books,  and  the  Eucharistic  vessels,  the  lowest  shelf  of  the  rere- 
dos,  as  noted  above,  is  set  aside  for  the  purpose  of  holding  the  cross 
or  crucifix  and  the  candelabra.  The  cross  will  be  the  choice  of  all 
such  as  advocate  the  return  to  the  purity  of  Canono-Catholic  times. 
And  there  is  no  denying  the  fact  that  a  simple  cross  with  appropriate 
engraving  (Alpha  and  Omega,  Lamb  of  God,  etc.)  is  very  beautiful 
and  effective,  as  it  blazes  out,  in  unadorned  glory,  from  the  altar  wall. 
The  corpus  was  hardly  known  before  the  ninth  century,  and  even 
then  was  used  almost  entirely  for  processional  crucifixes.  At  this 
time  and  also  later,  when  the  crucifix  was  used  for  the  altar,  there 
were  many  idolatrous  and  superstitious  customs  connected  with  it. 
In  spite  of  the  fact,  therefore,  that  the  Lutheran  Church  has  defended 
the  crucifix  against  iconoclastic  tendencies,^^^)  the  return  to  the  plain 
cross  may  well  be  advocated.  This  consideration  becomes  all  the 
more  prominent  when  one  examines  the  nature  of  the  corpus  in  many 


180)  Dr.  C.  Abbetmever,  in  Lutheran  Witness,  July  24,  1917. 

181)  Kliefoth,  IV.  146. 


THE  FURNITURE  OF  THE  CHANCEL  AND  THE  AUDITORIUM.     181 

instances.  Only  in  rare  cases  can  the  divine  majesty  of  the  suffering 
Son  of  God  be  expressed  with  becoming  dignity  in  an  unpretentious 
drucifix.  And  it  certainly  is  not  an  aid  to  devotion  to  have  either  a 
sentimental  effeminate  figure  or  an  excessively  realistic  figure  on  the 
cross  before  one's  eyes.  If  the  crucifix  is  used,  the  corpus  should  re- 
ceive special  attention.  The  face  and  figure  should  be  ideal  and  not 
attract  notice  too  extensively.  It  may  be  made  of  bronze,  plated  with 
silver,  or  carved  from  various  kinds  of  wood,  in  which  case  the  na- 


ALTAR   CROSS. 
(Courtesy  W.  &  E.   Schmidt  Co.,  Milwaukee.) 

tural  grain  is  retained.  The  cross  of  the  crucifix  may  be  of  cast 
brass  and  gilded  or  plated  with  silver,  or  it  may  be  carved  from  hard- 
wood, which  takes  a  high  finish.  If  possible,  only  the  best  materials 
should  be  chosen,  crucifixes  of  gold,  silver,  ivory,  alabaster,  and  mar- 
ble having  a  very  rich  effect.  The  candelabra,  with  one,  three,  five, 
or  seven  lights,  should  agree  in  style,  materials,  and  construction 
with  the  cross  or  crucifix,  as  fine  as  the  congr^ation  can  afford,  so 
long  as  they  are  tasteful  and  harmonious.  The  same  is  true  of  the 
three-light   vesper   candlesticks,    which    are   used    at    every   evening 


182     THE  FURNITURE  OF  THE  CHANCEL  AND  THE  AUDITORIUM, 

service.  In  either  case,  the  altar  lights  are  now  often  connected  with 
the  gas  or  electric  light  system  of  the  church.  The  candlesticks  and 
candelabra  should  be  arranged  so  as  to  form,  with  the  cross  in  the 
center,  a  pyramid  of  regular  rise.  Beauty,  simplicity,  and  dignity 
are  the  requirements  which  should  be  kept  in  mind. 

It  may  be  remarked,  in  passing,  that  the  artificial  flowers  and 
plants  which  have  found  their  place  on  the  altar  since  the  times  of 
the  Rococo,  even  if  they  are  sheltered  by  a  bell  jar,  have  no  excuse  or 
"reason  for  being."  They  merely  show  the  power  of  custom,  no  mat- 
ter how  ridiculous  and  purposeless  it  may  be.  On  the  other  hand,  a 
custom  which  should  receive  all  encouragement  is  that  of  placing 
fresh,  living  flowers  on  the  shelf  of  the  altar  every  Sunday,  and  es- 
pecially on  festival  days,  Ps.  118,  27.  Dead  or  artificial,  imitated 
flowers  symbolize  death  and  decay,  while  living  plants  are  in  full 
accord  with  the  life  and  growth  of  the  Church  and  the  beauty  of  its 
Gospel. 

More  emphasis  even  than  upon  the  show  pieces  mentioned  above 
should  be  placed  upon  the  Eucharistic  vessels.  The  Lutheran  Church 
has  not  abrogated  the  use  of  precious  metals  as  materials  for  com- 
munion goods,  especially  since  gold  and  silver  have  been  used  for 
that  purpose  since  the  earliest  periods  of  the  Church.  All  vessels 
which  are  over-elaborate  in  design  and  execution  or  fashioned  after 
secular  models  are  not  permissible  for  a  Lutheran  altar.  So  far  as 
the  chalice  is  concerned,  the  shape  and  design  of  the  early  Gothic 
period  seems  to  be  most  satisfactory  for  practical  use.  The  foot  or 
stand  should  have  a  larger  diameter  than  the  top  of  the  cup,  since  it 
must  stand  safely  against  shaking  and  top-heaviness.  The  chalice  is 
rendered  safe  for  serving  by  the  knob  on  the  stem,  which  enables  the 
minister  to  obtain  a  firm  hold  on  the  vessel.  The  cup,  finally,  must 
be  adapted  for  drinking  without  the  danger  of  spilling.  All  these 
requirements  are  met  in  the  chalice  of  this  period.  The  Romanesque 
cup  is  too  wide  and  shallow,  the  Renaissance  cups  often  exhibit  a 
flaring  edge,  which  renders  serving  very  difficult,  and  some  modern 
designs  in  the  egg-shape  make  it  necessary  for  the  pastor  to  tip  the 
chalice  to  a  dangerous  angle.  There  are  few  old  models  which  may 
be  followed  in  the  case  of  flagons.  But  excellent  results  have  been 
obtained  in  the  various  styles.  The  flagons  are  not  so  large  as  the 
ancient  vessels  which  archeologists  describe,  but  hold  only  two  quarts 
to  a  gallon.  In  this  size,  they  are  handled  with  the  least  inconveni- 
ence. An  absolute  necessity  is  that  the  opening  be  made  large  enough 
to  permit  a  regular  thorough  cleaning  of  the  interior.  Profane  styles 
are  to  be  avoided  even  more  carefully  than  in  the  case  of  the  chalice, 
since  the  danger  of  introducing  them  is  greater.    The  paten  and  ci- 


THE  FURNITURE  OF  THE  CHANCEL  AND  THE  AUDITORIUM.     183 

boriuni  should  agree  with  chalice  and  flagon,  as  to  material  and  style. 
The  paten  must  not  be  too  flat,  since  the  wafers  may  then  slide  off 
the  rim.  The  ciborium  was  often  fashioned  like  a  small  tower  rising 
on  a  stem  from  a  large  base,  and  having  a  cover  like  a  steep  roof. 
This  more  elaborate  form  is  found  less  often  than  that  of  a  small 
chest  or  box,  whose  cover  bears  a  small  lamb  or  cross.  It  should  be 
large  enough  to  hold  all  the  wafers  for  every  communion  service. 
The  basin  of  the  baptismal  font  and  the  water  pitcher  are  sometimes 
modeled  after  the  same  styles  and,  in  fact,  included  in  the  same  set 
with  the  communion  vessels.  Individual  pieces  as  well  as  whole  sets 
may  be  obtained  at  reasonable  prices,  as  well  in  sterling  silver,  plated 
with  gold,  as  in  silver-plated  brass  and  in  the  baser  metals.    The  sym- 


A  SET  OP  BUCHARISTIC  VESSELS. 

-bols  on  the  commimion  set,  either  engraved,  relief,  or  filigree  work, 
should  be  such  as  have  actual  significance,  as,  for  instance,  grapevine 
and  leaves,  ears  of  wheat,  various  crosses,  etc.i*^)  x  reminder  which 
in  many  cases  is  anything  but  superfluous  is  this  that  the  communion 
vessels  should  receive  proper  care,  not  only  in  being  stored  in  a  dust- 
proof  place,  but  also  in  being  cleaned  regularly  and  thoroughly. 
Where  individual  commvmion  sets  have  been  introduced,  in  a  few 
isolated  instances,  on  account  of  the  danger  of  offense,  this  warning 
is  just  as  necessary  as  in  the  case  of  the  common  cup  (which  is  not 
insanitary).  It  is  almost  self-evident  that  the  pastor  will  carefully 
remove  all  moistness  from  touching  the  lips  in  giving  the  wafers  by 
wiping  on  an  antiseptic  cloth,  and  that  he  will  wipe  the  interior  of 


182)  Cp.  Kliefoth,  III.  332;  IV,  139;   Meurer,  Der  Kirchenbau,  239— 
247;  Schultze,  Das  evangelische  Kirchengebaeude,  87 — 93. 


184     THE  FUENITURE  OF  THE  CHANCEL  AND  THE  AUDITORIUM. 

the  cup,  after  each  serving  to  three  or  four,  with  a  piece  of  antiseptic 
gauze  or  a  clean  cloth. 

Since  Lutheran  churches  are  intended  for  preaching,  the  provid- 
ing of  proper  seating  facilities  or  pews  is  essential.  Though  the 
deliberations  on  this  question  will  .be  governed,  primarily,  by  the 
question  of  available  funds,  yet  an  excess  of  penurious  tendencies  in 
this  one  instance  will  be  deplored  more  than  foolish  extravagance. 
It  is  far  better  to  reduce  in  the  expenditure  for  ornamentation  than 
to  provide  benches,  pews,  or  seats  which  are  disharmonious,  insub- 
stantial, and  uncomfortable.  In  most  cases,  pews  will  probably  be 
the  seats  under  consideration.  And  these  are  now,  fortunately,  made 
in  more  comfortable  styles  than  the  old  straight-seat  and  straight- 
back  instruments  of  torture,  the  sitting  on  which  was  often  more  of 
a  penance  than  a  privilege.  In  case  pews  are  selected,  care  should  be 
taken  that  the  pew-backs  are  not  too  high,  and  that  the  decorative 
carving  is  confined  to  the  pew-ends.  Both  seat  and  back  should  be 
fashioned  according  to  the  shape  of  the  body,  and  there  must  be  no 
sharp  molding  cutting  into  the  back  just  below  the  shoulder-blades. 
Less  conservative  congregations  nowadays  are  turning  to  auditorium 
chairs  for  seating  purposes.  And  there  are  some  reasons  which  com- 
mend this  action  very  strongly.  Where  space  is  limited,  the  fact  that 
chairs  can  be  placed  more  closely  together  on  account  of  the  absence 
of  heavy  pew-back  moldings  and  thus  the  seating  capacity  enlarged, 
is  a  weighty  factor.  Then,  also,  auditorium  chairs  in  the  same  style 
and  grade  are  far  less  expensive  than  pews,  there  is  no  disagreeable 
crowding  together  as  in  long  pews,  there  is  no  crawling  over  the  knees 
of  the  end  people  by  late-comers,  and  last,  but  not  least,  churches  with 
chairs  are  more  easily  cleaned.  This  is  a  factor  even  where  a  modern 
vacutun  cleaner  is  used,  and  much  more  where  the  old  mode  of  clean- 
ing is  still  in  vogue.  And  there  is  no  danger  of  giving  the  church  a 
profane  or  secular  aspect  by  the  use  of  auditorium  chairs,  because 
they  are  now  made  in  styles  which  are  fully  as  stately  as  the  former 
heavy  pews.  Kidder  preserves  the  golden  mean  by  advocating  the 
use  of  folding  seat-pews,  which  have  given  great  satisfaction  wherever 
they  have  been  tried.  So  far  as  the  spacing  of  seats  is  concerned,  the 
minimum  distance  from  back  to  back  should  not  be  less  than  two 
feet,  eight  inches  for  pews,  and  two  feet,  six  inches  for  chairs. 
Schultze  would  like  to  see  the  distance  of  at  least  one  meter  (39.37 
in.)  observed.  The  pews  or  chairs  will,  of  course,  agree  with  the  style  ' 
of  the  church  and  its  interior  furniture.  In  no  case  is  the  grotesque 
and  bizarre  admissible,  nor  should  the  pews  be  modeled  too  strongly 
after  the  ancient  choir  seats  still  found  in  Episcopal  churches.  In 
arranging  the  seating,  care  must  be  taken  that  both  altar  and  pulpit 
may  be  seen  from  every  part  of  the  auditorium. 


THE  FURNITURE  OF  THE  CHANCEL  AND  THE  AUDITORIUM.     185 

The  organ,  the  "queen  of  musical  instruments,"  is  indispensable 
as  soon  as  a  congregation  can  afford  a  suitable  one.  A  plain  reed 
organ  cannot  fill  a  church  of  any  size.  A  vocalion,  if  a  really  good 
instrument,  will,  in  some  respects,  take  the  place  of  a  pipe  organ. 
But  the  final  ambition  of  a  congregation  is  usually  a  pipe  organ  of 
some  kind,  one  whose  volume  will  be  just  suitable  for  the  size  of  the 
church  auditorium,  and  which  will  beautify  the  services  and  serve 


FLAGON. 

for  the  edifying  of  the  congregation,  in  accompanying  the  hymns. 
There  is  such  a  wide  range  of  pipe  organs,  from  the  small  one-manual 
organ  to  immense  orchestrons  or  orchestrions,  worth  almost  a  king's 
ransom.  In  no  other  line,  perhaps,  have  builders  of  musical  instru- 
ments in  America  attained  to  a  higher  level  than  in  perfecting  the 
organ,  and  the  double-pneumatic,  electrical  connections  enable  the 
organist  to  control  at  will  the  softest  pianissimo  and  the  most  thun- 
dering fortissimo.    It  is  best  if  the  organ  is  built  especially  for  the 


186     THE  FURNITURE  OF  THE  CHANCEL  AND  THE  AUDITORIUM. 

church  that  purchases  it.  **'The  organ  case  shoxild  not  be  shaped  as 
a  member  of  the  building  dependent  on  the  other  constructions,  but 
as  an  independent  instrument!  The  form  of  a  building  is  to  be 
avoided,  and  the  ethereal  character  of  music  is  to  be  suggested  by  a 
light  ornamental  style.  The  i  form  should  not  be  derived  from  the 
forms  of  constructions  in  stone,  nor  should  it  iwint  to  arrangements 
which  indicate  limitations  caused  by  the  necessities  of  the  building; 


CHAUCB. 

but  it  should  have  a  complete  space,  arranged  for  it  with  due  delib- 
eration." 1^)  The  place  for  the  organ  is  in  the  choir  loft  above  the 
main  portal,  opposite  the  altar.  The  correct  position  of  the  organ 
and  the  relation  of  this  noble  instrument  to  the  services  in  the  Lu- 
theran Church  cannot  be  emphasized  too  strongly,  especially  in 
America,  where  the  danger  of  being  influenced  by  the  Reformed  and 
extra-Christian  cong^r^ations  is  vmusually  great.  "The  organ  is  in- 
tended, first  of  all,  alone  or  supported  by  a  choir  of  singers,  or  by 


183)  Mothes,  quoted  in  Horn,  114. 


THE  FURNITURE  OF  THE  CHANCEL  AND  THE  AUDITORIUM.     187 

other  instruments,  to  open,  accompany,  and  close  the  services  in  a 
clear,  significant,  but  not  obtrusive  way,  and  especially  to  complete 
and  dignify,  lead  and  accompany,  the  unison  singing  of  the  congre- 
gation. A  further  employment  for  concerts,  etc.,  must  give  place  to 
this  liturgical  purpose  and  function."  ^^)  This  is  brought  out  by 
Ifliefoth  in  his  usual  clear,  emphatic  way,  basing  his  remarks  upon 
various  early  Lutheran  books  on  church  polity.  "Since  the  organ  has 
merely  an  accompanying  position,"  he  writes,  "it  must  be  kept  in  this 
position.  In  the  service  of  the  congregation  only  such  music  is  jus- 
tified as  aids  and  acts  as  bearer  for  the  Word.    The  organ  must  not 


PATEN. 

presume  to  play  an  independent  role,  without  congregational  singing. 
Extensive  pre-,  inter-,  and  postludes  must  be  discontinued ;  and  above 
all  the  introducing  of  extemporaneous  fugues  and  similar  aberra- 
tions, which  change  the  congregation  assembled  for  services  into  a 
concert  audience.  When  services  are  fully  at  an  end,  the  organist 
may  show  his  art  and  play  a  fugue  or  a  similar  composition."  ^^)  In 
accordance  with  these  requirements,  the  organ  will  show  its  ancillary 
character  throughout  the  services,  and  thus  aid  in  the  emphasis  placed 
upon  the  Word.  The  preludes  before  the  opening  of  services,  and  the 
postludes  after  the  close,  may  be  as  pretentious  as  the  skill  of  the  or- 
ganist permits.  But  during  the  service  the  organ  has  only  one  func- 
tion, namely  to  intone  and  to  accompany  the  singing.    Short  preludes 


184)  Mothes,  quoted  in  Horn,  104. 

185)  Die  urspruenyliche  Gottesdienstordnung,  V,  357;  IV,  280.  281. 


188     WINDOWS,   MOSAICS,   SCULPTURE,  PAINTING,   DECORATING. 

may  indicate  the  nature  and  suggest  the  melody  of  the  following 
hymn,  but  the  interludes  should  not  exceed  a  few  bars,  and  may  often 
be  omitted  entirely,  especially  in  the  singing  of  the  Creed. 

The  hymnboards  or  numberboards  are,  as  Schultze  puts  it,  in- 
deed no  decorative,  but  almost  indispensable  adjuncts  in  a  Lutheran 
church.  Between  the  announcing  of  the  hymns  by  the  pastor  and  the 
placing  of  their  numbers  upon  the  hymboard,  the  latter  is  surely  the 
lesser  evil.  The  hymnboard  should  properly  agree  with  the  altar  and 
pulpit  in  style,  design,  and  finish.  It  must  of  necessity  be  conspicu- 
ous, but  should  not  carry  its  efforts  in  that  direction  too  far.  It 
would  seem  desirable  to  add  one  or  two  rows  to  the  customary  hymn- 
board,  six  rows  being  insufficient  on  special  occasions.  If  there  is 
harmony  and  consistency  in  all  the  furniture  of  the  church,  the  effect 
of  quiet  restfulness  will  do  much  toward  aiding  in  the  beauty  and 
effectiveness  of  the  services. 


CHAPTER  4. 
Windows,  Mosaics,  Sculpture,  Painting,   Decorating. 

The  requirements  which  have  been  discussed  till  now  may  be 
considered  primary  needs.  The  Lutheran  cultus  demands  most  of 
them,  and  the  church  would  be  incomplete  so  long  as  they  are  mis- 
sing. But  there  are  also  considerations  which  may  be  regarded  as 
secondary  or  not  essential  in  the  same  degree,  which  still  are  of  such 
importance  that  they  warrant  a  separate  treatment.  For  in  no  other 
cases  have  the  canons  of  art  so  often  been  disregarded  and  flagrantly 
violated  as  in  those  parts  of  the  church  in  which  the  fine  arts  are 
represented.  To  say  that  a  transgression  of  certain  demands  has  re- 
sulted in  the  very  epitome  of  ugliness  and  tastelessness  is  merely 
stating  a  fact  which  may  be  corroborated  in  numerous  instances. 

This  is  true,  first  of  all,  of  the  windows.  It  was  natural  for  the 
first  Lutherans  in  America  to  wish  for  colored  windows,  like  those 
which  they  had  seen  so  often  in  their  former  home  beyond  the  ocean. 
And,  their  poverty  forbidding  the  installation  of  elaborate  and  costly 
windows,  they  were  often  persuaded  to  resort  to  imitations,  which 
served  their  purpose,  in  a  way,  but  could  never  replace  the  genuine 
article.  Even  in  our  days,  real  art  windows  are  the  exception.  One 
often  sees  windows  of  cheap  colored  glass,  in  the  most  impossible 
geometrical  and  ungeometrical  designs,  squares  and  polygons  and 
diamonds  and  scrolls  and  lines  of  magnificence  and  curlicues  all  be- 
ing employed  to  produce  a  hopelessly  incongruent  effect.  At  the 
same  time,  the  selection  and  juxtaposition  of  colors  is  so  inharmoni- 
ous as  to  threaten  the  vision.    And  the  interior  of  the  church,  bathed 


WINDOWS,   MOSAICS,  SCULPTURE,  PAINTING,   DECORATING.      189 

ill  multicolored  radiance,  often  presents  a  ghastly  effect.  Yet  the 
aim  to  possess  colored  windows  of  the  right  kind  is  a  most  laudable 
one.  For,  as  Uhland  says,  "painted  (art)  windows  seem  to  me  essen- 
tial for  a  Christian  church,  for  the  place  is  not  closed  so  long  as  the 
eye  can  gaze  through  the  windows  into  the  wide  heaven.  It  is  a  re- 
quirement of  the  church  window  that  it  does  not  permit  a  look  or  a 
thought  to  go  out,  but  serves  for  the  admission  of  all  that  is  heav- 
enly." 1^6)  There  are  three  kinds  and  grades  of  glass  which  come 
into  consideration.  The  common  colored  glass  is  cathedral  glass.  It 
is  the  ordinary  crown  glass  to  which  simple  pigments  have  been 
added.  It  is  seldom  that  one  finds  a  rich  effect  in  this  glass.  A  bet- 
ter glass  with  richer  tones  is  the  Venetian  glass,  which  greatly  re- 
sembles the  Bohemian.  But  the  best  grade  for  art  windows  is  the 
thick  iridescent  variety  which  is  called  opal  or  opalescent  glass.  It 
is  in  this  glass  that  the  most  artistic  results  may  be  obtained.  For  it 
is  the  material  which  was  produced  owing  to  the  revival  of  interest 
in  the  magnificent  windows  of  the  Middle  Ages.  Conspicuous  among 
the  leaders  in  the  revival  of  stained  glass  work  were  two  Americans, 
Tiffany  and  La  Farge,  the  latter  being  the  discoverer  or  inventor  of 
opal  glass.  Opal  glass  is  essentially  fusible  porcelain.  Its  peculiar 
beauty  consists  in  this  that  it  responds  to  various  processes  during 
its  manufacture  with  the  most  surprising  effects.  According  as  the 
ingredients,  and  especially  the  pigments,  are  evenly  or  unevenly 
mixed  in  the  melting  pot,  subjected  to  even  or  uneven  pressure,  cor- 
rugated or  otherwise  manipulated,  the  glass  varies  in  texture,  tone, 
and  strength.  One  may  see  not  only  wave,  cloud,  and  flame  effects, 
but  the  most  picturesque  results,  such  as  storm  scenes,  with  masses 
of  wind-swept  twigs  and  branches  in  dark-brown,  the  emerald  leaves 
torn  from  them  filling  the  sky,  which,  with  its  irregular,  flying  clouds, 
was  represented  by  a  dark,  grayish-blue  foundation.  With  such  ma- 
terial at  his  disposal,  the  artist  in  opal  or  opalescent  glass  has  almost 
tlie  latitude  of  the  painter  in  oils.  With  patient  care,  he  selects  his 
color  and  tone  harmony,  building  up  light  and  shade  from  the  de- 
tailed cartoon.  After  the  first  piecing  together  is  finished,  the  task 
of  backing  up  must  eliminate  all  suggestions  of  crudity  and  mellow 
the  picture  into  a  rich  harmonious  whole.  The  glass  of  such  a  win- 
dow therefore  varies  in  thickness  from  a  quarter  of  an  inch  to  six  or 
seven  inches.  And  in  the  entire  picture  or  pattern  there  is  no  painted 
surface,  with  the  exception,  perhaps,  of  the  face  and  the  flesh  parts. 
And  a  recent  improvement  does  away  with  the  heavy  leaded  lines  by 
welding  the  individual  pieces  together  with  copper  strips  into  one 
harmonious  unit.     There  are  almost  endless  possibilities  in  stained 


186)  Quoted  in  Schulze,  114. 


190     WINDOWS,  MOSAICS,  SCULPTURE,  PAINTING,  DECORATING. 

glass  windows,  especially  if  the  artist  tempers  the  bright  southern 
light  in  a  church  with  dark  patterns  and  warms  the  cold  northern 
light  with  bright  and  cheerful  colors.  For  "windows  depend  not  only 
upon  the  design,  but  also  upon  the  ability  of  the  worker  to  select  such 
colors  and  thicknesses  as  will  give  the  desired  effect  under  the  par- 
ticular light  to  which  it  will  be  exposed."  i^'^) 

A  building  committee  will,  of  course,  insist  upon  receiving  car- 
toons of  the  various  windows  in  the  correct  colors.  And  the  main 
factor  to  be  considered,  beside  the  appropriateness  and  the  correct- 
ness of  the  design,  will  be  the  question  of  light  and  its  effect  upon 
the  finished  window.  Above  all,  the  considerations  mentioned  by 
Cram  ^^^)  must  be  emphasized.  Stained  glass  windows  should  be 
decorative,  not  pictorial.  Each  window  is  a  piece  of  colored  and 
translucent  decoration  and  must  therefore  continue  the  structural 
wall  perfectly.  It  must  be  flat,  without  perspective  and  modeling, 
for  it  is  technically  a  mosaic  of  pieces  of  glass.  Great  sheets  of  glass 
modeled  into  folds  of  drapery  are  not  permissible.  In  compoiind 
windows,  it  is  best  to  take  single  figures  for  each  opening,  filling  the 
space  between  two  mullions.  The  upper  portion  of  the  window  is 
filled  with  rich  canopy  work  which  should  be  the  same  for  all  open- 
ings, at  least  on  the  same  side.  The  figures  must  be  formal  and  con- 
ventional, not  naturalistic,  the  backgrounds  decorative,  not  descrip- 
tive, the  clothing  and  vestments  symbolic,  not  realistic.  The  number 
of  Bible  scenes  which  are  suitable  for  church  windows  is  almost  end- 
less. Christ  in  Gethsemane,  the  Crucifixion,  the  Resurrection,  the 
Transfiguration,  the  Ascension,  and  others  are  especially  good  for 
triple  windows.  So  far  as  medallions  in  plain  art  windows  are  con- 
cerned, a  number  of  symbols  will  be  found  in  a  special  chapter  below. 

The  principles  which  govern  the  use  of  mosaic  decorations  are 
closely  connected  with  those  governing  the  windows.  No  matter 
whether  wall  mosaics  or  pavement  mosaics  are  employed,  they  should 
be  decorative,  not  pictorial;  the  idea  of  a  flat  surface  must  not  be 
destroyed  by  an  attempt  to  introduce  perspective;  and  all  figures- 
must  be  formal  and  conventional.  If  wall  mosaics  are  used,  they  will 
probably  extend  only  as  high  as  the  usual  wainscoting,  except  in  the 
apse.  The  panels  will  usually  bear  a  geometrical  design,  with  a 
border  of  conventional  flowers,  especially  ivy,  passion  flowers,  lilies. 
If  the  border  is  set  with  terra-cotta  tiling,  the  rich  effect  is  greatly 
enhanced.  Floor  or  pavement  mosaics  should  be  used,  if  possible,  in 
the  vestibule  and  in  the  main  aisle,  though  one  often  finds  main  and 
wall  aisles  laid  with  rubber  or  cork  composition,  with  mosaic  border^ 


187)  Kidder,  Churches  and  Chapels,  59. 

188)  Church  Building,  Chapter  VI. 


WINDOWS,   MOSAICS,  SCULPTURE,  PAINTING,   DECORATING.      191 

on  account  of  their  ability  to  deaden  the  sound.  In  the  vestibule, 
this  requirement  is  not  so  prominent,  and  terrazo  and  mosaic  flooring 
is  much  more  frequently  employed.  Here  the  choice  of  designs  is 
also  limited.  Thorns,  thistles,  and  grasses  may  be  represented,  also 
lions,  dragons,  whales,  animals  of  the  deep,  lizards,  snakes,  etc.  (Ps. 
91,  13;  148,  1 — 13),  in  the  space  before  the  altar  also  deer  (Ps.  42,  2). 
Figures  of  saints,  angels,  etc.,  may  not  be  used,  for  it  is  not  proper 
to  tread  the  holy  things  under  foot.  Usually,  geometrical  designs 
may  be  relied  upon  as  being  satisfactory.  There  are  so  many  com- 
binations of  circles,  squares,  polygons,  arcs,  etc.,  possible,  that  there 
is  no  danger  of  lack  of  variety.  So  far  as  materials  are  concerned, 
tiling  and  terra-cotta  are  less  expensive  than  marble,  but  are  generally 
considered  not  quite  so  lasting  and  durable.  Terrazo  finish  is  fine 
and  not  beyond  the  reach  of  the  average  congregation.  Cement  molds 
are  the  least  expensive,  and  will  probably  be  satisfactory  where  the 
expense  is  a  serious  consideration. 

The  general  sculpture  of  a  Lutheran  church,  both  around  the 
windows  an,d  doors  and  in  the  frieze  ornamentation  and  the  capitals, 
depends  upon  the  style  of  the  building  and  must  carry  out  the  main 
idea  consistently.  As  a  general  rule,  classic  patterns  should  be 
avoided,  since  they  remind  too  strongly  of  pagan  temples.  There  are 
so  many  beautiful  and  appropriate  models  from  the  Middle  Ages,  for 
capitals  as  well  as  for  frieze  and  cornice  work,  that  one  need  not  go 
back  beyond  the  Romanesque  and  the  Gothic.  Cheap  imitations  of 
marble  sculpture  carried  out  in  stucco  or  plaster  of  Paris  should  not 
be  tolerated.  They  have  no  place  in  a  Christian  church,  where  hon- 
esty and  truthfulness  should  be  leading  traits.  It  will  probably  not 
occur  very  often  that  the  elaborate  portals  of  the  Gothic  cathedrals 
or  the  Norman  doorways  are  used  as  models,  but  if  such  decoration 
is  not  beyond  the  aspiration  and  ability  of  the  congregation,  there  is 
no  reason  why  beautiful  sculpture  work  should  not  adorn  the  tym- 
panum, the  spandrils,  and  the  columns  of  the  main  entrance.  The 
grotesque  and  bizarre  effects  of  the  Gothic  builders  had  better  not  be 
imitated,  however,  either  in  the  gargoyles  or  in  the  peculiar  repre- 
sentations of  legends,  as  pictured  by  the  medieval  mind.  To  place 
statues  or  reliefs  of  saints  somewhere  about  the  main  entrance  savors 
strongly  of  Romanism.  A  large  church  in  the  Renaissance  style,  in 
one  of  our  large  cities,  has  the  twelve  apostles  in  high  relief  on  the 
arch  above  the  main  portal.  Others  are  content  with  fancy  carving 
which  gradually  breaks  into  leaf  tracery  and  foliage  and  points  up- 
ward to  the  cross  which  crowns  the  gable.  If  the  church  is  built  of 
brick  with  white  sand-stone  trimming,  the  effect  of  stone  carving,  if 
■correctly  carried  out,  is  one  of  exquisite  grace.     Sculpture  work  in 


192     WINDOWS,  MOSAICS,  SCULPTURE,  PAINTING,  DECORATING. 

the  interior  of  Lutheran  churches  will  probably  be  confined  to  win- 
dow tracery,  the  mullions,  and  the  arches  over  the  windows.  The 
ivy,  the  passion  flower,  the  palm,  the  lily,  and  even  leaves  of  the  local 
flora,  may  be  chosen  as  models.  More  effective,  perhaps,  than  such 
decorative  work,  is  the  providing  of  small  niches  on  the  side  walls, 
especially  at  the  corners  of  the  transept,  in  which  the  statues  of 
evangelists,  apostles,  or  prophets  may  be  placed.  In  this  way,  the 
very  walls  and  stones  will  assist  in  proclaiming  the  Word.  Of  sculp- 
ture and  carving  on  the  panels  of  the  pulpit  and  on  the  f  rontale  and 
superfrontale  of  the  altar  we  have  spoken  above.  The  statues  of 
Moses  and  Elias,  or  of  Moses  and  John,  which  are  sometimes  used, 
are  inappropriate  for  the  altar.  However,  Thorwaldsen's  "Come 
Unto  Me"  or  another  Christ  figure  expressing  the  grace,  mercy,  and 
loving-kindness  of  the  Savior  in  the  central  panel-niche  of  the  altar 
is  very  fitting  and  correct. 

The  art  of  painting  has  not  yet  received  the  attention  which  it 
demanded  in  the  later  Middle  Ages,  when  everything  was  placed  at 
the  disposal  of  the  Church,  and  which  it  merits  to-day  on  account  of 
its  beauty  and  impressiveness,  if  properly  employed.  But  it  is  slowly 
coming  into  its  own.  There  are,  indeed,  but  few  mural  paintings  in 
churches  which  are  worthy  of  note,  with  the  exception  of  an  occa- 
sional symbolic  panel.  But  there  are  some  beautiful  and  elaborate 
examples  of  altar  paintings,  for  this  branch  of  the  art  has  been  cul- 
tivated with  great  success  in  America,  a  number  of  artists  devoting 
their  entire  time  to  this  work.  In  paintings  of  this  kind,  the  use  of 
perspective  is  fully  permissible,  all  the  highest  attainments  of  the 
art  being  welcomed  for  the  embellishment  of  the  house  of  God.  But 
realistic  presentation  is  not  acceptable,  especially  in  pictures  of  the 
Christ,  for  they  distract  the  devotion.  The  conception  must  be  ideal,, 
and  the  execution,  especially  as  to  clothing  and  vestments,  symbolic. 
Even  the  work  of  Kubens  transgresses  this  requirement.  Among  the 
Italians,  the  work  of  Rafael,  da  Vinci,  and  Corregio  measures  up  to 
the  ideal  standard,  and  of  the  painters  of  the  last  century  whose  work 
is  deservedly  popular  Hofmann,  Plockhorst,  Thoma,  Carolsfeld,  and 
others  may  be  mentioned. 

The  mural  decorating  or  frescoing  of  a  church,  as  well  as  vitre- 
ous brick  finishing  in  buff  or  tan,  is  so  important  that  it  might 
properly  demand  a  chapter  for  itself.  But  the  statement  of  certain 
fundamental  principles  will  enable  us  to  do  justice  to  this  branch  of 
the  art  of  painting  and  call  attention  to  the  necessity  of  their  ob- 
servance. First  of  all,  a  general  color  scheme  must  be  chosen,  de- 
pending upon  the  lighting  of  the  building,  both  by  day  and  by  night. 
Then  the  character  of  the  colors  must  be  considered.    Blue  and  white 


WINDOWS,  MOSAICS,  SCULPTURE,  PAINTING,  DECOHATINO.      193 

are  cold  colors  and  will  rarely  serve  well  for  a  base.  Beginning  with 
cream,  and  continuing  through  various  shades  of  yellow,  golden  red, 
orange,  and  maroon,  a  rich  and  warm  tone  predominates.  The  vari- 
ous shades  of  green  are  also  cheerful  and  inviting.  So  much  depends 
upon  the  psychology  of  colors  that  the  impression  of  an  entire  church 
building  may  be  governed  by  their  proper  selection  and  application. 
At  any  rate,  it  is  well  worth  while  consulting  a  good  interior  deco- 
rator, one  who  is  really  a  master  in  his  line.  He  must  understand, 
above  all,  the  limits  of  his  craft  and  guard  very  carefully  against 
over-ornamentation.  In  some  churches,  the  attempts  at  emphasizing 
art  have  resulted  in  hideous  nightmares  of  garish  wall-painting  with- 
out a  central  thought  or,  in  fact,  any  idea  at  all.  If  the  purpose  were 
to  see  how  many  different  kinds  of  color  can  be  applied  to  a  given 
surface  area,  the  solution  might  be  found  more  easily  by  exploding 
cans  of  every  pigment  in  the  rainbow  scale  in  the  middle  of  the 
church,  and  then  adding  a  few  cubist  touches.  The  dignity  of  a 
church  building  demands  more  than  that.  It  requires  the  intelligent 
use  of  color  harmony  combined  with  the  application  of  Christian 
symbolism,  without  any  Catholic  admixture.  It  is  worth  a  church 
committee's  while  to  work  out,  with  the  artist,  a  scheme  of  interior 
decoration  which  will  preserve  the  style  of  the  church,  harmonize 
I)erfectly  with  its  interior,  and  express  the  Christian  idea.  "Atten- 
tion is  directed  to  the  fact  that  the  frescoing  of  our  churches  very 
frequently  is  inartistic,  and  even  when  i)erformed  by  good  craftsmen, 
is  often  inappropriate  or,  at  least,  meaningless  in  a  house  of  worship. 
We  believe  that  these  strictures  are  well  taken.  Too  frequently  we 
observe  designs  which  materially  detract  from  the  beauty  of  other- 
wise fine,  churchly  interiors,  either  by  reason  of  the  garish  tints  em- 
ployed, or  on  account  of  the  amateurish  execution,  or  because  they 
are  inartistic  in  choice  of  subject.  It  certainly  is  a  mistake  to  accept 
an  ambitious  plan  of  wall  treatment  involving  the  representation  of 
floating  angels,  the  figure  of  the  blessed  Savior,  of  the  evangelists, 
etc.,  and  permitting  unskilled  hands  to  execute  the  sketches.  It  is  a 
fact  too  often  overlooked  that  even  ordinary  technical  training  is  not 
sufficient  for  the  successful  treatment,  especially  of  ceilings  and  the 
curved  surface  of  altar  niches.  The  representation  of  the  human 
figure  to  be  seen  at  such  angles  involves  a  knowledge  of  perspective 
very  rarely  found  even  in  trained  frescoers.  When  attempted  by  an 
ordinary  painter,  the  effect  is  quite  unsatisfactory,  as  those  who  have 
seen  the  result  of  such  experimenting  will  testify.  Here,  as  in  the 
case  of  architects'  sketches,  one  must  be  cautioned  against  trusting 
too  much  to  a  beautifully  drawn  and  colored  sketch  of  wall-treatment. 
Only  a  man  of  experience  can  be  trusted  to  execute  such  designs  in 
a  way  which  will  harmonize  with  the  furniture  of  the  church,  and 
Kretzmann,  Cbristian  Art.  13 


194      LIGHTING,  HEATING,  VENTILATING,  BELLS,   HARDWARE. 

will  'stand  up'  under  illumination  at  night  as  well  as  in  the  daytime. 
When  a  congregation  is  unable  to  employ  the  services  of  a  trained 
fresco  artist,  it  ought  to  permit  the  walls  to  remain  white,  or  simply 
tinted,  with  stenciled  borders.  But  no  matter  how  simple  these  bor- 
ders may  be,  they  should  always  be  churchly,  should  in  some  way  in- 
dicate the  purpose  of  the  building.  To  employ  such  features  in  a  de- 
sign does  not  necessarily  mean  a  great  outlay  of  money.  Even  a  verj' 
simple  plan  of  wall-treatment,  entailing  the  expenditure  of  only  a 
few  hundred  dollars,  may  be  made  to  comport  with  the  architecture 
of  the  building  and  with  its  purpose  as  a  house  of  worship.  Aside 
from  being  artistically  correct,  —  correct  in  drawing  and  coloring, — 
the  decorations  in  our  churches  ought  to  be  of  a  distinctive  Christian 
type.  The  designs  ought  to  bear  a  message,  ought  to  be  full  of  mean- 
ing. In  the  decorative  scheme  employed  and  in  the  various  features 
within  that  scheme,  the  purpose  of  the  church  building  as  a  house  of 
divine  worship  ought  to  be  embodied.  There  ought  also  to  be  a  sug- 
gestion of  that  bond  which  unites  those  who  worship  with  the  church 
of  all  climes  and  ages.  The  cardinal  truths  of  our  religion,  the  hopes 
and  aspirations  of  Christianity,  its  chosea  task  and  mission,  should 
stand  forth  in  this  decorative  embellishment.  All  these  purposes  are 
served  by  employing  Chnstian  symbolism  as  a  basis  of  interior  deco- 
ration." 189) 


CHAPTER  5. 
Lighting,   Heating,  Ventilating,   Bells,   Hardware. 

When  a  church  is  contemplated,  the  fine  arts  are  not  the  only 
ones  that  come -into  consideration,  the  industrial  arts  playing  a  very 
important  role.  Just  as  in  the  erection  of  the  church  building  itself 
structural  engineering  is  employed  in  figuring  load  and  wind  stresses, 
on  floors,  stairways,  choirloft,  trusses,  towers,  spires,  etc.,  so  the 
science  of  mechanical  and  electrical  engineering,  especially  that  por- 
tion which  refers  to  lighting  and  heating,  is  used  in  planning  the  in- 
terior. And  very  often  these  practical  questions  determine  to  a  large 
extent  the  habitability  and  always  the  comfort  of  the  church  building 
in  all  its  parts. 

The  proper  lighting  of  a  church  is  an  important  problem.  If 
the  church  is  fittingly  orientated,  the  disposition  of  windows  is  easily 
arranged,  particularly  so  if  there  are  large  transept  windows.  Win- 
dows directly  behind  the  preacher  are  a  nuisance  and  should  be 
avoided,  as  it  is  very  painful  for  an  audience  to  face  a  window.  For 
the  same  reason,  the  lighting  of  the  apse  should  be  provided  for  as 


189)  Lutheran  Witness,  Dec.  14,  1915. 


LIGHTING,   HEATING,  VENTILATING,   BELLS,   HABDWARE.       195 

described  above,  by  windows  located  behind  the  superfrontale  of  the 
altar  or  on  either  side  in  such  a  way  as  not  to  throw  any  light  rays 
into  the  eyes  of  the  attendants  at  holy  worship.  The  windows  on  the 
south  of  the  building  should  not  admit  any  direct  light  rays,  being 
fitted  with  colored  (art)  glass  which  may  be  said  to  be  between  trans- 
lucent and  opaque.  Those  on  the  north  side,  however,  being  on  the 
left  of  the  congregation,  may  be  so  light  as  to  be  between  translucent 
and  transparent.  The  modem  opalescent  art  glass  allows  for  an  al- 
most infinite  variety  of  combinations  in  the  various  shades  of  the 
same  color  scheme  and  pattern.  And  the  rose  window  over  the  west- 
em  portal  will  represent  the  mean  between  the  two.  A  small  parish 
church  in  the  West  selected  a  dark  amber  color  for  this  window,  and 
the  afternoon  and  evening  sun,  sending  its  rays  through  the  opal 
lights,  floods  the  church  with  waves  pi  liquid  rose  fire  which  is  inde- 
scribably beautiful.  The  basement  rooms  should  be  provided  with  as 
many  windows  as  possible,  since  frosted  panes  will  usually  be  desir- 
able, and  these  are  merely  translucent. 

Since  a  modern  church  building  is  used  in  the  evening  just  as 
much  as  during  the  day,  the  artificial  illumination  is  a  question  for 
itself.  In  many  country  churches,  evening  services  occur  so  seldom 
that  almost  no  provision  is  made  for  them.  The  few  oil  lamps  shed 
a  dim  luster  in  the  feeble  effort  to  penetrate  the  Stygian  darkness, 
and  there  is  a  general  effect  of  a  more  than  religious  light.  Luckily, 
the  Lutherans  know  a  great  many  of  their  beautiful  hymns  from 
memory,  and  it  is  assumed  that  the  pastor  also  knows  his  sermon,  so 
the  ultimate  result  is  better  than  might  be  expected.  But  it  is  by  no 
means  an  ideal  state  of  affairs,  and  the  efforts  of  such  country  churches 
as  are  installing  adequate  oil  or  acetylene  gas  illuminating  systems 
are  heartily  to  be  commended.  In  cities  (and  in  many  country  dis- 
tricts) the  congregations  will  usually  have  the  choice  of  gas  or  elec- 
tricity, or  both  together.  Even  in  small  towns  electricity  is  now 
produced,  at  least  in  the  evening,  and  in  country  districts  at  a  dist- 
ance from  an  electric  line  small  individual  plants  may  be  installed. 
Even  if  electricity  is  chosen  in  the  city,  it  will  always  be  a  matter  of 
good  policy  to  have  at  least  a  few  so-called  combination  fixtures,  in 
order  that  a  few  gas  lights  may  always  be  in  commission  and  no  con- 
fusion or  even  panic  result  in  case  the  electric  current  is  interrupted 
or  turned  off.  Formerly  the  direct  lighting  system  was  generally 
used,  but  since  the  chandelier  lights  are  usually  glaring  and  affect 
the  eyes,  the  indirect  or  semi-indirect  system  of  lighting  is  used  more 
and  more  for  church  auditoriums.  There  are  a  number  of  these  sys- 
tems now  in  use  which  are  far  past  the  experimental  stage,  and  a 
congregation  will  do  well  to  examine  the  several  methods  closely  and 
decide  according  to  circumstances.    An  excellent  way  of  lighting  the 


196       LIGHTING,  HEATING,  VENTILATING,   BELLS,   HARDWARE. 

apse  is  by  means  of  a  row  of  lights  set  inside  the  triumphal  arch  and 
invisible  to  the  audience.  Some  auditoriums  have  all  the  lights  hid- 
den in  recesses  just  below  the  arch  of  the  ceiling,  while  the  ceiling 
itself  is  set  with  clusters  of  bulbs.  Though  the  effect  of  this  arrange- 
ment is  very  pretty,  it  does  not  seem  so  churchly  as  individual  sus- 
pended fixtures.  No  matter  what  form  of  illumination  is  decided 
upon,  it  shoidd  never  result  in  a  mere  "dim  religious  light,"  but 
should  enable  every  attendant  with  normal  eye-sight  to  read  the 
hymns  without  straining  his  vision. 

The  question  of  heating  is  usually  a  serious  and  difficult  one.  In 
smaller  parish  churches,  especially  in  the  country,  stoves  are  still  in 
general  use.  Their  placing  often  interferes  with  the  view  of  altar 
and  pulpit,  and  the  long  sections  of  stove-pipes  are  not  exactly  deco- 
rative features  of  the  interior.  They  have  the  additional  drawback 
that  their  neighborhood,  at  least  on  one  side,  presents  a  section  of  the 
torrid  zone,  while  distant  parts  of  the  auditorium  may  be  experioi- 
cing  the  rigors  of  an  arctic  winter.  For  these  reasons,  the  stoves  are 
gradually  being  replaced  by  furnaces.  These  are  fuUy  satisfactory, 
even  for  churches  with  a  seating  capacity  of  more  than  three  hundred. 
It  depends,  of  course,  upon  the  way  in  which  the  registers  are  placed. 
Some  furnace  systems  require  many  wall  registers  and  are,  therefore, 
more  costly  in  proportion  than  such  as  require  only,  two  or  three  large 
floor  registers.  The  furnace  pipes,  in  many  cases,  render  the  use  of 
the  basement  almost  impossible.  Hot  water  heating  is  employed  in 
many  church  buildings  which  are  in  use  every  day.  Many  architects 
consider  steam  heating  as  the  only  satisfactory  heating  system  for  a 
church  building,  the  argument  being  that  a  much  cheai)er  grade  of 
coal  may  be  used  and  that  the  draining  of  the  radiators,  if  these  be 
correctly  placed,  can  be  done  thoroughly  and  rapidly.  The  time  may, 
of  course,  not  be  far  distant  when  other  systems  will  sujjersede  the 
ones  now  in  use,  such  as  the  individual  gas  steam  radiator  system, 
but  at  present  electric  heating  and  other  systems  are  not  beyond  the 
trial  stage.  But  where  electricity  is  very  cheap,  it  may  well  be  em- 
ployed for  heating  the  smaller  rooms  of  the  church  building,  when 
the  weather  is  not  too  excessively  cold.  The  principal  attention  mtist 
be  paid  to  the  even  distribution  of  heat,  whichever  system  may  be 
selected.  The  usual  experience  has  been  that  the  floor  became  so  cold 
as  to  make  it  very  uncomfortable  in  zero  weather.  Some  congr^a- 
tions  have  therefore  found  it  advantageous  to  run  steam  pipes  along 
beneath  the  seats,  thus  keeping  the  feet  warm.  In  one  western  church, 
the  auditorium  floor  is  built  up  in  the  tiers,  with  a  few  inches  elevation 
for  each  successive  one,  and  the  ducts  with  the  hot  air  tpen  beneath 
the  seats.  This  method  is  very  effective,  but  may  consume  a  great 
deal  of  fuel.    If  ordinary  radiators  are  used,  the  plan  of  placing  them 


LIGHTING,   HEATING,   VENTILATING,   BELLS,   HARDWABE.       197 

in  recesses  of  the  wall,  behind  ornamental  screens,  seems  to  be  gain- 
ing favor,  and  with  good  reason.  A  radiator  is  at  best  an  unsightly 
addition  to  a  room,  and  if  it  can  be  placed  out  of  the  way  without 
interfering  with  the  effectiveness  of  the  heating  plant,  the  plan  should 
be  adopted  far  more  generally.  A  requirement  which  is  often  over- 
looked is  this  that  the  women's  retiring  room  be  kept  warm.  In  some 
churches,  it  seems  to  be  considered  sufficient  if  a  little  warm  air  from 
the  auditorium  finds  its  way  into  this  room.  But  when  the  door  of 
this  room  is  closed,  the  temperature  may  become  dangerous  for  little 
children.  It  has  been  suggested  that  every  congr^ation  have  one  or 
more  oil  stoves  for  just  such  rooms  which  will  often  not  receive  their 
full  complement  of  heat,  such  as  the  vestry.  If  the  people  are  forced 
to  resort  to  automobile  and  carriage  foot  warmers  to  keep  from  hav- 
ing chills,  the  congregation  is  not  giving  the  necessary  attention  to 
an  item  which  demands  careful  consideration. 

Closely  connected  with  the  question  of  heating  is  that  of  proper 
ventilation.  In  the  past,  this  factor  was  so  sadly  neglected  that  the 
foulness  of  "church  air"  became  proverbial.  It  stands  to  reason  that 
the  respiration  and  perspiration  of  several  hundred  people,  not  to 
speak  of  modern  perfumes,  will  quickly  produce  a  vitiated  atmosphere. 
It  may  be  perfectly  true,  as  the  results  of  recent  investigations  have 
established,  that  carbonic  acid  gas  may  be  inhaled  in  much  larger 
quantities  than  was  formerly  supposed,  since  it  is  not  in  itself  poison- 
ous. But  in  a  church  where  no  ventilation  is  provided,  the  exhaled 
gas  and  the  moisture  from  lung  and  skin  will  hang  over  the  audience 
like  a  pall,  replacing  attentive  alertness  with  sleepiness,  and  often 
with  dizziness  and  faintness.  In  a  church  of  that  kind,  a  preacher  of 
even  more  than  average  ability  cannot  succeed  in  arousing  interest 
and  holding  the  attention.  Therefore  the  atmosphere  in  a  church 
should  be  renewed  continually  by  ventilation,  the  best  plan  being  that 
of  furnishing  thirty  cubic  feet  of  pure  air  per  minute  for  every  per- 
son. This  can,  of  course,  be  attained  to  a  degree  by  keeping  the  air 
inside  the  building  in  motion.  Electric  fans  not  only  enable  the  air 
to  take  up  a  greater  amount  of  perspiration,  but  their  action  also 
draws  air  from  outside  through  every  crevice.  If  natural  ventilation 
is  the  only  method  employed,  it  should  at  least  be  put  into  use  regu- 
larly. If  windows  and  doors  are  opened  for  a  good  airing,  before  and 
after  each  service,  to  permit  all  the  foul  air  to  escape,  the  pure  air 
will  be  heated  through  all  the  more  quickly.  In  many  churches  at 
least  so  much  has  been  provided  for  that  there  is  ventilation  by  aspi- 
ration. A  double  flue  is  built  into  the  chimney  and,  as  the  warm  air 
ascends  on  the  one  side  with  the  smoke,  the  cold  air  sinks  down  on 
the  other  side.  The  outlet  for  the  warm  air  is  placed  above,  and  the 
intake  for  the  cold  air  below.    Many  churches  have  ventilators  in  the 


198       LIGHTING,   HEATING,   VENTILATING,   BELLS,   HARDWARE. 

window  sills  or  just  below  them.  They  have  the  advantage  that  they 
will  not  cause  draughts.  In  many  instances,  the  tower  is  used  for 
ventilation  by  aspiration,  since  the  partition  need  not  extend  very 
far.  The  most  successful  method  of  ventilation  is  the  fan  or  power 
system.  The  exhaust  method  in  this  case  draws  out  the  bad  air,  and 
the  plenum  method  forces  in  pure,  fresh  air.  The  exhaust  method 
may  easily  be  installed  by  placing  the  fan  in  the  east  wall  of  the 
tower.  It  would  ordinarily  be  used  between  services,  but,  since  it 
runs  noiselessly,  it  could  also  be  in  motion  during  services.  The 
plenum  method  provides  pure  washed  air,  but,  unfortunately,  it  uses 
a  great  deal  of  fuel,  since  in  this  case  the  fan  blows  the  fresh,  cold  air 
through  the  heating  coils  and  along  the  ducts  into  the  rooms.  There 
are  no  draughts  in  this  case.  The  entire  method  should  be  recom- 
mended most  emphatically  to  the  attention  of  the  congregations.  In 
this  respect,  at  least,  they  may  learn  much  from  an  inspection  of 
large  halls,  auditoriums,  and  theaters,  provided  these  are  modem. 

Only  in  recent  years  has  the  importance  of  hardware  for  church 
buildings  received  some  recognition  in  Lutheran  congregations.  This 
is  of  such  consequence  that  there  was  every  reason  for  the  emphasis 
placed  upon  dinanderie  in  the  Middle  Ages.  In  addition  to  the  ar- 
ticles for  ecclesiastical  use  made  of  copper  and  its  alloys,  brass  and 
bronze,  there  are  the  various  instruments  and  ornaments  made  of 
wrotight  iron  which  deserve  the  most  carefvd  attention.  It  is  true,  of 
course,  that  a  Lutheran  church  has  no  need  of  portable  altars,  nor  of 
pixes,  monstrances,  shrines,  reliquaries,  censers,  croziers,  holy  water 
vats  or  stoups,  and  sanctuary  rings  or  knockers,  but  Eucharistic  ves- 
sels, crosses,  candlesticks,  light  holders,  lecterns,  book-covers,  fonts, 
ewers  and  water  vessels,  bronze  doors,  and  bells  are  in  use  to-day  and 
should  be  made  as  fine  as  circumstances  permit.  Most  of  these  ar- 
ticles have  been  discussed  above,  but  there  are  several  that  have  not 
yet  been  considered,  and  do  properly  belong  to  hardware.  So  far  as 
lighting  fixtures  are  concerned,  chandeliers,  semi-indirect  and  direct 
units,  and  wall  brackets  are  now  made  in  every  style,  with  a  range  of 
prices  fully  accomodating  every  demand.  In  selecting  them,  care 
must  be  taken  that  they  are  constructed  so  as  to  catch  the  least  pos- 
sible dust.  In  many  bowl  fixtures,  this  factor  is  not  taken  into  ac- 
count, and  the  resulting  frequent  cleaning  is  decidedly  unpleasant. 
The  fixtures  may  be  made  to  order  after  a  special  pattern.  In  one  of 
our  northern  cities,  there  is  a  church  whose  fixtures  are  modeled  after 
a  medieval  lantern,  the  effect  being  Very  quaint  and  interesting.  Care 
must  be  taken,  however,  that  no  secular  models  be  introduced  and  the 
churchly  character  be  in  any  way  interfered  with.  At  least  some  of 
the  wall  brackets  should  be  combination  fixtures,  for  reasons  stated 
above. 


PARAMENTS  AND  CLERICAL   VESTMENTS.  199 

The  registers  and  the  radiator  screens  can  be  selected  to  har- 
monize with  the  other  fixtures  of  the  building,  especially  if  these  be 
elaborate.  On  all  the  doors,  but  notably  those  of  the  main  portal, 
the  door-knobs  and  plates,  as  well  as  the  hinges,  should  be  chosen  with 
the  same  idea  of  harmony  in  mind.  Stock  fixtures  do  not  draw  the 
attention  in  a  building  devoted  to  secular  uses,  but  in  a  church  one 
involuntarily  looks  for  signs  on  all  sides,  showing  that  the  building 
has  been  set  apart  from  ordinary  use.  If  railings  of  metal  are  em- 
ployed anywhere  in  the  church,  as  for  stair-way  balustrades  or  the 
choir-loft  (or,  though  not  so  fittingly,  for  the  chancel),  they  should 
also  be  ordered  with  a  view  of  preserving  the  restfulness  of  the  in- 
terior. In  many  cases,  the  railings  resemble  poultry  or  rabbit  netting 
more  than  appointments  in  the  house  of  God.  Moreover,  they  are 
often  cheap  and  dingy-looking,  and  thus  detract  greatly  from  the  ef- 
fectiveness of  the  church.  There  is  no  excuse  for  such  conditions. 
Far  better  omit  subsidiary  features  of  a  church  than  to  spoil  an 
otherwise  harmonious  interior  by  such  mistakes. 

About  bells  nothing  much  need  be  added.  The  Lutheran  church 
has  retained  them  with  a  full  understanding  of  their  usefulness. 
With  the  removal  of  all  superstition  and  idolatry,  the  bell  is  now  an 
instrument  whose  "pealing,  charming,  clamorous  sweetness"  has  an 
effect  more  potent  and  compelling  than  many  another  form  of  musi- 
cal instrument.  A  church  without  a  bell  is  almost  like  a  persoji  with- 
out a  voice.  No  wonder  that  a  bell  with  a  pure,  loud,  far-reaching 
tone,  calling  the  Christians  to  divine  service,  reminding  them  of  the 
special  hours  of  prayer,  inviting  the  absent  to  join  with  the  congre- 
gation in  the  Lord's  Prayer,  or  announcing  to  them,  with  measured 
strokes,  the  death  of  a  member  of  the  congregation,  has  become  an 
almost  indispensable  piece  of  church  furniture.  The  number  of  bells 
is  either  one,  or  three,  or  a  set  of  chimes. 


CHAPTER  6. 
Paraments  and  Clerical  Vestments. 

Although  the  Reformation  had  not  interfered  with  paraments,  so 
far  as  the  Lutheran  Church  is  concerned,  and  though  the  enlivening 
function  of  the  altar  and  pulpit  vestments  was  fully  recognized,  there 
arose  in  certain  quarters,  especially  those  under  Reformed  influence, 
a  certain  antipathy  against  their  retention.  In  spite  of  this,  they 
were  maintained  in  most  of  the  parishes  of  northern  Germany.  The 
age  of  Pietism  and  then  that  of  Rationalism  exerted  a  much  more 
pronounced  influence  by  creating  a  peculiar  sort  of  apathy  against 
the  use  of  paraments  which  proved  much  more  effectual  in  causing 


200 


PARAMENTS  AND  CLERICAL   VESTMENTS. 


PARAMENTS  AND  CLERICAL  VESTMENTS.  201 

their  abandonment  than  open  and  pronounced  opposition  might  have 
done.  But  there  has  been  a  healthy  revival  of  interest  in  church 
vestments  in  the  last  half-century.  Bock,  Meurer,  and  Beck  in  Ger- 
many were  among  the  leaders  in  reestablishing  a  sane  and  proper 
appreciation  of  Evangelical  paramentics.  In  America  also  a  healthy 
interest  is  becoming  manifest.  Professor  Beck's  book  "Evangelische 
Paramentik"  was  hailed  with  joy  by  the  reviewer  in  the  "Lutheran 
Survey."  And  many  a  Ladies'  Aid  Society  has  deemed  its  members 
honored  by  providing  proper  paraments  for  the  house  of  God.  The 
fear  as  though  the  vestments  are  too  costly  is  without  fo\indation. 
The  initial  cost  of  an  entire  set  is  not  so  high  as  that  of  an  altar, 
and  though  this  may  seem  large  for  a  single  expenditure,  it  must  be 
remembered  that  the  several  cloths  may  be  purchased  one  at  a  time. 
Undoubtedly,  also,  it  requires  only  a  suggestion  to  have  a  special 
Altar  Guild  organized  in  a  congregation,  whose  members  would  make 
the  purchase  and  proper  care  of  church  vestments  for  all  seasons 
their  object,  and  incidentally  have  charge  of  the  Eucharistic  vessels. 
It  is  by  no  means  a  mere  compliment  on  the  part  of  Meurer,  Beck, 
and  others,  if  they  laud  the  work  of  the  women  of  the  congregation 
or  of  such  special  organizations.  With  the  proper  instruction,  such 
women  will  take  pride  in  keeping  the  house  of  worship  in  its  proper 
order,  so  far  as  the  vestments  are  concerned.  Wherever  there  is  no 
interest  for  such  embellishments,  the  fault  lies,  as  a  rule,  not  with 
the  parishioners,  but  with  the  pastor. 

"So  far  as  the  altar  vestments  and  the  Eucharistic  cloths  are  con- 
cerned, the  white  linen  paraments  are  used  at  all  seasons  of  the 
church  year.  They  signify  the  unchanging  doctrine  of  the  Christian 
Church.  There  are  mainly  three  white  vestments  to  be  considered, 
two  others  occurring  only  rarely  in  the  Lutheran  Church  of  America. 
The  white  cloth  covering  of  the  mensa  should  be  of  fine  linen.  It 
should,  fit  the  mensa  perfectly  and  may  even  project  beyond  the  edges 
for  several  inches.  This  part  should  receive  neither  embroidered  nor 
drawn-work  designs,  but  should  extend  in  immaculate,  undisturbed 
whiteness.  This  does  not  exclude  a  hemstitched  border.  That  part 
of  the  cloth  also  which  hangs  over  the  sides  may  be  left  wider,  from 
six  to  ten  inches,  and  receive  the  full  attention  of  a  good  needle  artist 
in  a  geometrical  drawn-work  design.  The  representation  of  small 
plain  crosses  and  chalices  had  better  not  be  used,  as  Beck  says,  be- 
cause the  contrasted  repetition  is  tedious.  A  border  of  lace  is  most 
appropriate,  if  made  in  a  churchly  design.  Bone-lace,  Cluny,  Tulle, 
and  Hardanger  (not  Battenberg  or  Valenciennes),  in  a  width  from 
three  to  ten  inches,  will  serve  very  well.  Instead  of  the  open-work 
lace  effect,  it  is  still  better  to  use  the  outline  stitch  or  the  stem  stitch, 
with  red  or  blue  silk,  to  apply  the  designs.    Even  white  satin-stitch 


202  PARAMENTS  AND  CLERICAL  VESTMENTS. 

work  is  not  excluded  from  the  border,  but  in  this  case  it  will  be  bet- 
ter to  outline  the  figures  in  red  or  blue,  since  they  will  otherwise  not 
show  up  well  at  a  distance.  If  symbols  are  used  in  the  lace  border 
of  the  altar-cloth,  the  old  Christian  initials  I  H  S,  wheat-ears,  grapes 
and  grape-leaves,  or  passion  flowers  may  be  used.  The  patterns 
printed  by  Beck  show  very  simple  as  well  as  very  elaborate  designs. 
If  the  altar  is  of  stone,  the  altar-cloth  may  be  protected  against 
dampness  by  a  chrismale,  that  is,  a  linen  cloth  stiffened  by  a  wax 
bath,  of  the  size  of  the  altar,  "over  which  should  be  laid  a  cloth  of 
imbleached  or  stiff  bleached  linen  of  the  same  size,  which  is  often 
omitted,  though  it  contributes  very  much  to  the  preservation  of  the 
other  vestments."  i^<^)  The  same  purpose  is  served  by  a  heavy  cover- 
ing of  felt,  which  just  covers  the  mensa. 

The  Corporale  is  a  square  white  linen  cloth,  to  be  placed  under 
the  Eucharistic  vessels  on  the  altar.  It  sometimes  has  a  fringe  of 
narrow  Cluny  or  Hardanger  lace.  It  may  also  be  hemstitched  and 
have  a  small  cross  or  Christmonogram  embroidered  in  each  corner. 
No  other  embroidery  or  adornment  is  permissible  for  this  cloth.  Its 
size  must  be  sufficient  for  all  communion  vessels,  or  two  cloths  may 
be  used.  Incidentally  it  may  be  said  that  the  silver  serving  plate, 
upon  which  the  Eucharistic  vessels  are  carried  to  the  altar,  must 
never  be  used  on  the  mensa,  since  the  Corporale  only  is  used  for 
that  purpose. 

The  embroidery  of  the  Velum  may  be  as  pretentious  as  the  needle 
artist  desires.  It  is  a  linen  or  batiste  cloth  a  little  larger  than  the 
Corporale  (30x30,  36x36  inches),  to  cover  the  Eucharistic  vessels  on 
the  altar,  especially  the  chalice  and  the  flagon.  If  the  number  of 
vessels  is  such  that  one  Velum  will  not  suffice,  a  second  one  of  the 
same  size  and  design  should  be  provided.  Hem-stitching,  and  a  nar- 
row border  of  Cluny  or  Hardanger  lace  may  always  be  employed. 
Ears  of  wheat  and  grapevines  may  be  embroidered  on  the  Velum, 
either  in  chain-stitch,  or,  still  better,  in  outline-stitch.  Solid  em- 
broidery should  not  be  employed,  since  it  interferes  with  the  draping 
of  the  vestment  and  gives  it  an  aspect  of  stiffness  and  heaviness. 
Beck  has  a  beautiful  pattern  for  a  Velum,  showing  alternating  grape- 
vines and  wheat-ears,  with  a  monogram  (Chi  Rho,  Alpha  Omega)  in 
the  center,  and  small  stars  in  the  open  space.  The  Purifical  in  use 
in  some  churches  agrees  with  the  foregoing  in  pattern  and  execution. 

Besides  these  principal  linen  vestments,  many  altar  sets  now  in- 
clude also  a  Palla,  or  a  number  of  palls,  one  for  each  vessel.  They 
are  made  of  linen  (in  preference  to  the  custom,  sometimes  foimd,  of 
using  the  colors  of  the  season),  and  are  folded  or  hemmed  over  a 


190)  Mothes,  quoted  in  Horn,  116. 


PABAMENTS  AND  CLERICAL   VESTMENTS. 


203 


204 


PARAMENTS  AND  CLERICAL  VESTMENTS. 


piece  of  cardboard.  The  embroidery  may  be  like  that  of  the  Velum, 
especially  where  both  chalice  and  paten  are  covered  with  palls.  The 
Bursa  is  rarely  used  in  the  Lutheran  Church.  It  is  a  pocket  or  reti- 
cule, sometimes  of  fine  white  linen,  but  oftener  of  silk,  in  the  color 


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of  the  season.     Its  purpose  is  to  serve  as  a  holder  for  the  Corporale, 
before  and  after  administration. 

Not  ritually  indispensable,  but  yet  called  for  by  the  liturgy  and 
aiding  much  in  putting  change,  life,  and  significance  into  the  ser- 
vices, is  the  decorative  clothing  of  the  altar  in  the  colors  of  the  sea- 
son.    There  are  altogether  five  liturgical  colors:  white,  the  color  of 


PAEAMENTS  AND  CLERICAL  VESTMENTS. 


205 


the  angels  and  of  all  saints,  as  Luther  calls  it,  symbolizing  innocence 
and  holiness,  majesty  and  glory;  red,  the  majestic  color  of  dominion, 
of  joy,  of  light-giving  doctrine,  of  the  fire  of  the  Holy  Ghost,  of  blood 
and  of  martyrdom,  symbolizing  especially  love,  the  love  of  the  Bride. 


the  Church,  to  Christ,  the  Bridegroom;  green,  the  every-day  color  of 
the  earth,  the  restful  and  refreshing  color  of  hope,  of  peace,  and  of 
victory;  violet  (not  purple,  or  lilac,  or  any  shade  of  blue)  the  solemn, 
earnest  color  of  penitence  and  mourning,  humility,  concentration, 
and  prayerful  self  communion ;  and  black,  the  color  of  humiliation, 
sadness,  and  deepest  mourning.    The  liturgical  seasons  during  which 


206  PARAMENTS  AND  CLERICAL  VESTMENTS. 

the  vestments  in  the  respective  colors  are  used,  are  these:  white,  for 
the  great  Christ  festivals,  the  times  of  the  greatest  majesty  and  glory 
in  the  church-year,  from  Christmas  Eve  till  the  Epiphany  octave,  on 
Easter  and  till  Ascension;  red,  on  the  festivals  next  in  rank,  on 
which  also  the  love  of  the  Church  toward  Christ  is  emphasized,  on 
Pentec(^t,  Trinity,  Michaelis,  Reformation  Festival,  and  Dedication 
Day,  all  of  which  are  a  result  of  Whitsunday;  green,  during  the  time 
when  the  life  and  growth  of  the  Church  are  proclaimed,  for  the  every- 
day seasons  of  the  Church,  from  the  Epiphany  octave  till  Quinqua- 
gesima,  and  on  all  Sundays  after  Trinity;  violet,  during  the  so- 
called  closed  seasons,  the  times  of  prayerful  meditation,  diiring 
Advent,  during  the  Lenten  season  from  Ash  Wednesday  till  Palmarum, 
also  on  Exaudi  Sunday,  as  the  day  of  preparation  for  Pentecost; 
black,  during  Holy  Week,  on  days  of  penitence,  and  when  funeral 
services  are  held  in  church.  If,  for  various  reasons,  a  cong^regation 
cannot  make  it  possible  to  get  all  five  colors,  at  least  three  colors 
ought  to  be  provided:  green,  red,  and  black,  red  taking  the  place  of 
white,  and  black  that  of  violet.  But  it  will  be  found  much  more 
satisfactory  to  have  the  complete  set  of  colors. 

A  word  of  caution  must  be  inserted  in  regard  to  the  choice  of 
colors,  especially  red,  green,  and  violet.  They  must  be  the  full,  solid, 
fast  colors,  in  each  case,  not  rose-color,  or  light  green,  or  robin's-egg 
blue,  neither  orange,  or  bronze,  or  olive-green.  In  certain  cases  also, 
the  dyes  are  of  such  a  nature  as  to  react  with  the  gold  and  silver  cord 
used  in  some  parts  of  the  embroidery.  In  most  cases,  it  is  not  ad- 
visable to  order  through  a  local  store,  especially  if  the  town  is  small, 
but  rather  apply  to  a  large  house  of  noted  integrity,  which  is  able  to 
procure  the  correct  shades.  As  for  the  kinds  of  material  best  adapted 
for  the  colored  vestments,  they  are  the  following:  for  white,  silk 
damask,  brocade,  or  broad-cloth;  for  green,  broad-cloth;  for  violet, 
broad-cloth  or  silk  damask;  for  black,  broad-cloth  or  silk.  In  white 
and  violet,  it  may  be  possible  to  secure  silk  damask,  in  which  the 
pattern  will  show  lions,  dragons,  or  deer  in  gold  thread  on  the  white 
background.  There  is  a  possibility  that  a  sufficient  demand  for  such 
cloth  will  cause  it  to  appear  on  the  market.  Reputable  firms  dealing 
in  church  goods  will  gladly  supply  the  necessary  information. 

It  was  stated  above  that  the  cost  of  the  paraments  is  not  such  as 
to  cause  hesitation  on  the  part  of  the  congregation  in  procuring  the 
same.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  there  is  such  a  great  range  in  excellence 
of  paraments  and  therefore  also  in  prices  that  congr^ations  of  every 
size  may  be  accommodated,  broad-cloth  with  plain  embroidered  de- 
signs being  within  reach  of  even  the  poorest  church.  Velvet,  especi- 
ally cotton  velvet,  should  not  be  chosen;  it  fades  easily  and  becomes 
shabby  quickly.     It  is  not  absolutely  necessary  that  the  respective 


PARAMENTS  AND  CLERICAL   VESTMENTS. 


207 


vestment  cover  the  mensa  of  the  altar.  As  noted  above,  special  linen 
cloths  or  a  thick  piece  of  felt  may  be  used  for  that  purpose.  And 
the  white  linen  altar  covering  must  be  on  the  mensa  at  all  seasons  of 
the  year,  thus  covering  whatever  cloth  may  be  in  use.    For  the  altar. 


a  strip  of  the  colored  parament  from  eight  to  eighteen  inches  wide 
as  a  minimum  will  be  sufficient  Many  are  twenty-four  inches  wide 
and  richly  embroidered.  This  strip  may  be  fastened  to  the  edge  of 
the  mensa,  beneath  the  border  of  the  altar-cloth,  by  means  of  hooks 
or  snaps.  The  cloth  for  the  altar  reading-desk,  if  there  is  such  a 
piece  of  furniture,  will  rarely  be  more  than  eighteen  to  twenty-four 


208  PARAMENTS  AND  CLERICAL  VESTMENTS. 

inches  wide  and  two  to  three  feet  long.  And  the  covering  for  the 
pulpit  reading-desk  will  have  about  the  same  dimensions,  as  wiU 
that  of  the  lectern,  if  a  vestment  is  necessary  there.  The  covering 
for  the  baptismal  font  has  been  replaced,  almost  universally,  by  a 
marble  or  metal  lid.  The  pulpit  railing  should  have  no  vestments. 
Like  the  baptismal  font,  it  is  no  table,  and  should  not  have  the  cov- 
ering of  a  desk.  The  only  thing  that  might  be  done  here  would  be 
to  upholster  the  railing  on  the  top  with  felt.  All  the  material  neces- 
sary for  one  complete  set  of  colored  vestments  will  be  between  two 
and  two-thirds  and  three  square  yards.  If  the  embroidery  and  the 
fringes  are  then  chosen  in  a  simple  design,  the  cost  will  not  be  found 
excessive. 

The  proper  fringes  for  the  various  vestments  are :  for  white,  red, 
and  green  —  golden  or  pure  yellow  fringes,  alternating,  if  desired, 
with  fringes  the  color  of  the  vestment,  ten  cords  or  pencils  of  the 
liturgical  color  alternating  with  five  of  the  contrasting  fringe;  for 
violet  and  black,  silver  or  white  fringes,  alternating  with  the  color 
of  the  vestment  in  the  same  manner.  In  the  case  of  violet  paraments 
the  golden  alternative  is  permissible,  and  in  the  white,  red  in  addi- 
tion to  the  gold.  If  silver  and  gold  fringes  are  used  exclusively,  the 
effect  is  not  so  beautiful.  The  corners  of  the  paraments,  on  the  altar 
as  well  as  on  the  reading  desks,  may  be  fitted  with  tassels  whose 
weight  will  tend  to  keep  the  cloth  stretched  evenly.  Some  litur- 
giologists  advise  against  their  use. 

I^  is  in  the  execution  of  the  embroidery  on  the  various  vestments 
that  the  great  difference  in  cost  principally  appears.  It  is  im^der-_ 
stood,  of  course,  that  the  designs  and  figures  which  are  chosen  for 
the  paraments  will  harmonize  thoroughly  with  the  style  and  interior 
decoration  of  the  church,  especially  with  the  altar  and  pulpit.  Then, 
also,  the  limitations  of  the  art  of  embroidery  must  be  carefully  ob- 
served. As  Beck  points  out,  it  is  a  very  ambiguous  compliment  if 
church  needle-work  is  praised  as  looking  "realistic,"  "with  perfect 
perspective,"  "as  though  chased  in  gold"  or  "carved  from  alabaster," 
etc.  The  embroidery  of  paraments  is  decorative  and  symbolical, 
nothing  more.  Its  effect  is  dependent  entirely  upon  contrast  of 
color,  to  distinguish  principal  and  subsidiary  parts  of  the  figure. 
For  it  covers  a  flat  surface,  it  is  to  serve  as  a  cover  or  hanging,  and 
should  attempt  nothing  more.  It  is  essential,  also,  that  the  various 
representations  be  united  and  enclosed  by  geometrical  lines,  to  guard 
against  the  illusion  of  a  drawing  or  painting.  And  so  far  as  human 
and  animal  figures  are  concerned,  all  attempts  to  represent  them  in 
a  natural,  realistic  manner  is  out  of  place  in  the  church.  This  in- 
cludes the  accentuation  of  the  trait  for  which  a  certain  figure  is 


PARAMENTS  AND  CLERICAL  VESTMENTS. 


209 


chosen.  K  the  effort  to  obtain  a  certain  effect  in  the  expression  of 
the  face  or  in  the  position  of  the  body  becomes  too  apparent,  the  re- 
sult may  become  a  ludicrous  carricature. 

A  rather  difficult  questiort   is  the  choice  of  color  for  the  em- 


broidery of  the  various  vestments.  Contrasts  which  are  too  striking 
are  just  as  absurd  as  the  choice  of  the  same  color  as  the  vestment, 
which  renders  the  design  almost  invisible,  except  at  short  distances. 
For  black  paraments,  the  chief  embroidery  color  is  white.  If  the 
lines  of  the  design  are  carefully  graded,  the  contrast  will  not  be  so 
great  as  one  might  suppose.  And  if  a  certain  heaviness  in  the  em- 
Kretzmann,  ChrisUan  Art.  14 


210  PAEAMENTS  AND  CLERICAL  VESTMENTS. 

broidery  cannot  be  avoided,  it  may  be  relieved  by  using  blue,  violet, 
and  olive  in  some  parts  of  the  pattern,  or  by  choosing  gold  or  purple 
for  all  the  work.  Red  and  bright  green  must  be  avoided  in  embroid- 
ering black  paraments.  So  far  as  the  violet  vestments  are  concerned, 
the  same  general  rules  apply,  the  only  difference  being  that  black  is 
here  employed  as  basic  color.  In  green  cloths,  the  basic  colors  of  the 
figures  may  be  black,  blue,  red,  and  golden-brown,  with  various  darker 
and  lighter  shades  of  green,  while  the  prominent  lines  will  be  golden, 
and  outline  stitches  white.  For  red  vestments,  the  artist  should 
choose  blue,  olive-green,  and  shades  of  red  for  basic  colors,  while  the 
principal  lines  are  executed  in  gold  and  white.  The  most  difficult 
color  is  white,  since  it  requires  the  greatest  contrast  to  bring  out  the 
embroidery  well.  In  general,  the  choice  of  dark  violet,  green,  and 
red  shades  has  given  the  best  results.  The  outlines  may  be  golden 
yellow,  to  relieve  the  sharpness  of  the  contrast.  In  many  cases,  the 
heaviness  of  the  figure  will  not  p>ermit  such  a  juxtaposition,  however, 
and  in  that  event  it  will  be  best  to  use  white  as  the  basic  color  in  the 
design,  with  the  outline  stitches  in  darker  colors.  Some  of  the  finest 
examples  of  such  work  in  this  country  are  found  in  Trinity  Church 
of  Reading,  Pa.,  and  in  St.  John's  and  in  the  Motherhouse  of  Dea- 
conesses, Philadelphia. 

In  the  actual  execution  of  the  design,  the  individual  case  must 
decide  whether  the  embroidery  may  be  applied  directly  to  the  cloth 
or  must  first  be  applied  to  a  linen  stiffening  and  then  sewed  to  the 
goods.  If  the  work  is  done  by  professional  needle  artists,  they  will 
have  their  own  method.  But  with  the  attention  that  needle-work 
has  received  in  the  last  few  years,  it  is  more  than  probable  that  some 
one  from  the  congregation  with  real  talent  will  volunteer  to  do  the 
work.  The  stitches  used  are  those  commonly  employed  in  work  of 
this  nature.  The  stem-stitch  or  outline-stitch,  as  its  name  implies, 
is  used  principally  for  outlines  and  stems  of  flowers  and  plants, 
though  it  may  be  applied  to  surface  work.  Where  the  chain-stitch 
is  used,  the  outline-stitch  is  employed  at  least  for  the  fine  lines.  If 
the  design  is  such  as  to  permit  chain-stitch  embroidery,  the  work  can 
be  done  much  faster,  but  there  is  much  machine-work  which  has  hurt 
its  reputation  to  some  extent.  For  large  and  even  surface-work,  the 
flat  or  satin-stitch  and  the  overcasting  or  couching  stitch  have  proved 
most  serviceable.  The  latter  stitch  especially  brings  out  the  beauty 
of  the  silk  in  a  very  remarkable  way,  and,  since  it  may  be  done  on  a 
frame,  has  other  advantages  which  make  it  a  favorite.  Certain  pat- 
terns may  also  be  embroidered  in  cross-stitch  work,  but  the  execution 
is  very  difficult  in  the  case  of  figures.  For  such  as  find  it  impossible 
to  do  embroidery  of  the  finest  kind,  the  plaited  slav  stitch  has  many 
advantages,  since  it  does  not  require  such  continuous  eye-strain. 


PARAMENTS  AND  CLERICAL  VESTMENTS.  211 

To  discuss  the  various  appropriate  designs  and  symbols  for  para- 
nients  almost  calls  for  a  special  chapter,  and  most  of  them  will  be 
referred  to  below.  It  may  suffice  here  to  give  just  a  few  examples  as 
to  possible  combinations,  according  to  Beck.  The  white  paraments 
are  to  proclaim  Christ's  work  of  redemption.  A  lamb  in  the  center, 
treading  upon  a  dragon,  and  surroimded  by  panels  picturing  the  an- 
gels of  Christmas  and  Easter,  is  very  beautiful.  The  red  paraments 
symbolize  the  work  of  Christ  for  redeemed  mankind  through  His 
Church.  An  effective  pattern  shows  the  triumphant  Lamb,  sur- 
rounded by  the  figures  of  the  four  evangelists.  Others  give  the  mono- 
grams of  Christ  in  various  designs,  surrounded  by  the  emblems  of 
the  evangelists.  The  violet  vestments  deal  with  the  types  of  Christ. 
Melchizedek  and  Aaron,  the  sacrifice  of  Isaac,  and  similar  designs 
are  used.  The  green  paraments  symbolize  the  life  and  growth  of  the 
Church,  and  therefore  figures  concerning  the  Lord's  Supper,  the 
Water  of  Life,  the  fountain  in  the  wilderness,  and  others  are  emi- 
nently fitting.  For  the  black  paraments  only  such  figures  are  chosen 
as  deal  with  the  suffering  and  death  of  Christ.  The  various  mono- 
grams of  Christ,  the  letters  I  H  S,  with  or  without  cross,  the  Alpha 
and  Omega  in  various  combinations,  the  ancient  Chi  Rho  5^  in  dif- 
ferent designs,  and  others  are  always  appropriate.  The  Bible  verses 
selected  for  the  antependium  of  the  pulpit  should  always  be  short, 
and  have  reference  to  the  special  season,  or  to  the  work  of  redemption 
in  general.  "Hear  ye  Him,"  "God  is  Love,"  "Fear  not!"  and  many 
others  may  readily  be  suggested.^^i) 

The  carpets  of  the  sanctuary  and  the  space  just  in  front  of  it 
are  also  usually  discussed  under  the  paraments.  Their  color  should 
be  neutral,  in  order  that  it  may  harmonize  with  any  of  the  liturgical 
colors.  So  far  as  designs  are  concerned,  the  same  principles  apply  as 
in  the  case  of  mosaics.  Geometrical  figures  are  to  be  commended, 
also  figures  of  the  lower  animals,  dragons,  serpents,  etc.,  but  no  repre- 
sentation of  a  person  or  thing  which  is  regarded  as  sacred  in  the 
Church.  The  kneeling-stools  of  the  altar  must  not  be  upholstered  in 
the  liturgical  colors. 

The  Lutheran  Church  has  retained  only  a  part  of  the  clerical 
vestments  to  the  present  day,  although  there  is  no  doctrinal  or  litur- 
gical objection  to  the  use  of  as  many  vestments  as,  for  instance,  the 
Anglican  and  the  Protestant  Episcopal  churches  have  kept.  In  most 
of  the  American  Lutheran  congregations,  the  cassock  or  pulpit  robe 
is  the  only  full  garment  worn  as  the  distinctive  vestment  of  the 
minister.  It  signifies  that  the  wearer  is  engaged  in  the  actual  per- 
formance  of   his    ministerial   calling,    in    the    proclamation    of   the 


191)  Cp.  Common  Service  Book  and  Hymnal,  292. 


212 


PARAMENTS  AND  CLERICAL  VESTMENTS. 


Gospel.  It  is  to  be  hoped,  therefore,  that  it  will  be  retained  for  this 
purpose  and  not  be  replaced  by  the  unsightly,  and  often  ugly.  Prince 
Albert  frock  coat.  But  the  gown  or  cassock  should  really  have  a 
meaning.  Many  of  the  gowns  now  in  use  may  have  been  designed 
with  good  intentions,  but  the  result  is  a  nondescript  garment,  whose 
relation  to  clerical  vestments  is  charitably  assumed  to  be  beyond 
challenge.     The  Lutheran  cassock  or  pulpit  gown   is   an   academic 


# 


PULPIT  GOWNS. 
(Courtesy  Cotrell  &  Leonard,   Albany,   N.   Y.) 

vestment  and  should  adhere  closely  to  this  style.  There  are  several 
good  houses  in  this  country  which  make  a  specialty  of  such  garments 
and  can  provide  everything  that  may  be  desired.  The  following  regu- 
lations apply  to  academic  gowns,  and  are  therefore  also  generally 
accepted  for  pulpit  gowns.  "The  gowns  shall  be  of  the  patterns  com- 
monly used  by  colleges  and  universities.  The  long  pointed  sleeve 
indicates  the  Bachelor's  degree;  the  long  closed  sleeve,  with  slit  near 


PARAMENTS   AND  CLERICAL   VESTMENTS. 


213 


upper  part  of  arm,  indicates  the  Master's  degree ;  and  the  round  open 
sleeve  indicates  the  Doctor's  degree.  The  material  for  the  Bachelor's 
gown  shall  be  worsted,  for  the  Master's  and  Doctor's  gowns,  it  shall 
be  either  worsted  or  silk.  The  color  shall  be  black.  The  Bachelor's 
and  Master's  gowns  shall  be  untrimmed.  The  Doctor's  gown  shall 
be  faced  down  the  front  with  black  velvet,  with  bars  of  the  same 
across  the  sleeves;  or  the  facings  and  cross  bars  may  be  of  the  same 


PULPIT  GOWNS. 
(Courtesy  Cotrell  &  Leonard,  Albany.  N.  Y.) 

color  as  the  binding  or  edging  of  the  hood,  being  indicative  of  the 
degree."  ^^2)  All  graduates  of  a  Lutheran  theological  seminary  may 
use  a  Bachelor's  gown  or  one  of  the  various  forms  of  pulpit  gown. 
The  Lutheran  gown  has  round  sleeves,  a  closed  front,  a  yoke,  and  a 
high  neck,  with  collar  so  arranged  as  to  permit  the  easy  fastening  of 
the  bands.    The  Geneva  form  of  gown  is  usually  worn  open  in  front. 


192)  Minnesota  Alumni  Weekly,  XV,  31:  11. 


214      THE  SYMBOLISM  OF  THE    LUTHERAN  CHURCH  BUILDING, 

though  it  may  be  designed  to  close  in  front  or  to  be  worn  with  a 
cassock  front. 

In  addition  to  the  cassock  or  pulpit  gown,  Lutheran  clergymen 
have  commonly  worn  either  a  ruffled  collar  or  the  so-called  bands,  in 
either  case  of  a  pure  white  color.  The  bands  are  each  two  inches 
wide  and  six  inches  long.  They  may  be  hem-stitched  and  have  a 
small  embroidered  cross.  There  is  a  tendency  in  our  days  to  discard 
the  bands  entirely.  In  a  way  this  would  be  unfortunate.  For  if  the 
bands  are  derived  from  the  Greek  peritrachelium,  as  adopted  in  the 
Roman  orarium  siola  of  presbyters  and  bishops,  its  significance  would 
be  that  of  a  mark  of  rank,  to  distinguish  between  ordained  ministers 
actually  engaged  in  clerical  work  on  the  one  hand,  and  students  of 
theology,  superannuated  ministers,  etc.,  on  the  other  hand.  If  de- 
sired, the  use  of  the  bands  for  preaching  might  be  discontinued,  but 
it  should  be  worn  in  the  administration  of  the  Sacraments,  since  at 
such  times  the  pastor  officiates  in  a  very  pronounced  manner,  by  vir- 
tue of  the  power  vested  in  him  by  the  call. 


CHAPTER  7. 
The  Symbolism  of  the  Lutheran  Church  Building  and  Its  Appointments. 

In  these  days  of  scientific  investigation  and  suspicious  research 
it  may  be  considered  the  very  essence  of  unscientific  procedure  to 
devote  a  chapter  to  the  symbolism  of  the  church  building  and  its 
appointments.  Nevertheless,  the  summary  here  presented  may  be  of 
some  aid  in  understanding  the  externals  of  the  Lutheran  cultus,  es- 
pecially since  an  effort  has  been  made  to  rule  out  all  arbitrariness, 
such  as  has  characterized  similar  discussions  in  the  past. 

The  entire  Lutheran  church  building  and  all  its  parts  speaks  a 
reverent  and  inspiring  language  to  him  who  approaches  with  an  open 
mind  and  proceeds  to  examine  everything  in  an  intelligent  manner. 
The  buttressed  tower,  rising  like  a  castle  wall,  speaks  of  invincible 
strength,  Ps.  46;  Matt.  16,  18.  The  lofty  spire  points  to  the  true 
home  above,  the  goal  of  every  Christian's  desire  and  hope.  Col.  3,  2; 
Phil.  3,  20.  The  main  portal  opens  wide  and  inviting:  "Come,  for 
all  things  are  now  ready,"  Matt.  22,  4;  Luke  14,  17;  Matt.  25,  10. 
When  there  are  three  doors  under  one  great  arched  portal,  they  refer 
to  the  mystery  of  the  Triune  God,  as  do  all  the  windows  which  are 
grouped  in  series  of  three.  The  great  rose  window  over  the  main 
entrance  reminds  the  Christians  of  the  fact  that  the  desert  of  nations 
without  Christ  has.  bloomed  like  a  rose,  through  the  Gospel,  Is.  35,  1, 
As  the  Christian  enters  the  vestibule,  he  remembers  the  word  of 
earnest  admonition  to  make  his  service  one  of  true  devotion,  Ex.  3,  5 ; 
Eccl.  5,  1;  Ps.  26,  5.  6.    The  wide  central  aisle  leading  to  the  sane- 


THE  SYMBOLISM   OF  THE   LUTHERAN   CHURCH   BUILDING,       215 

tuary  is  a  type  of  the  way  of  grace,  which  leads  directly  to  the  mercy 
of  God,  through  the  merits  of  Christ,  Prov.  15,  24;  Heb.  10,  20.  The 
cruciform  plan  of  the  church  represents  the  symbol  of  Christianity, 
the  Cross  of  Christ.  The  same  emblem  occurs  over  the  portals,  on 
the  spire,  on  the  altar,  and  in  many  of  the  ornaments  of  the  building. 
Gal.  6,  14;  1  Cor.  1,  18;  2,  2.  If  the  form  of  the  church  is  rectangu- 
lar, the  entire  arrangement  will  nevertheless  signify  a  striving  for- 
ward toward  the  beauty  and  strength  of  the  means  of  grace.  Is.  60,  1 ; 
Ps.  42,  2.  The  organ  with  the  choir  is  on  the  choir-loft,  opposite  the 
altar,  to  lead  in  the  hymns,  and  especially  in  the  antiphonal  liturgy, 
Ps.  26,  12 ;  Rev.  19,  5.  The  large  figure  windows  will  remind  of  some 
great  deed  of  Christ,  or  represent  Him  in  one  of  His  parables.  The 
emblems  of  other  windows  and  on  the  frescoed  walls  will  point  to 
one  or  the  other  of  the  Sacraments  or  represent  the  beauty  of  some 
Christian  virtue.  The  altar  represents  no  hearth,  no  sacrificial  altar, 
no  sarcophagus,  but  a  table  for  the  celebration  of  the  Lord's  Supper, 
as  the  gracious  Sacrament  of  His  mercy,  1  Cor.  10,  21.  Everything 
on  and  about  the  altar  reminds,  in  some  way,  of  the  redeeming  grace 
of  Christ,  as  it  is  revealed  and  communicated  in  the  Eucharist.  The 
pulpit  stands  before  the'  congregation  and  yet  in  their  midst,  because 
the  pastor,  when  preaching  the  Gospel,  it  a  witness  of  the  faith  which 
has  been  committed  to  the  saints,  Jude,  v.  3.  The  baptismal  font  is 
at  the  entrance  of  the  apse,  or  in  a  chapel  adjoining  it,  because  the 
child,  by  Baptism,  is  received  into  the  communion  of  saints.  The 
apse  is  elevated  above  the  auditorium  and  yet  belongs  to  it,  since  all 
believers  have  free  access  to  the  full  mercy  of  God,  Rom.  5,  2;  Eph. 
2,  18 ;  3,  12.  For  this  reason  no  railing,  no  rood  screen,  or  any  other 
device  shuts  the  apse  off  from  the  rest  of  the  church.  All  the  lines 
of  the  church  are  simple,  but  dignified  and  beautiful.  Everything  is 
designed  to  awaken  and  to  foster  a  feeling  of  devotion  and  reverence. 
This  spirit  of  devout  uplift  will  be  strengthened  still  more  by 
the  inscriptions  on  the  parameuts,  on  the  altar,  pulpit,  walls,  etc. 
And  it  is  well  to  remember  here  that  the  strictures  of  Meurer,  Beck, 
and  others,  in  which  they  criticize  the  prevailing  custom  of  placing 
the  names  of  the  donors  in  conspicuous  places  on  the  gift,  with  the 
greatest  severity,  are  well  taken.  "While  the  latter  [the  Roman 
Catholics]  are  satisfied  with  the  condition  that  their  names  be  re- 
membered after  their  death  in  masses  for  their  souls,  our  people, 
during  their  very  life-time,  have  either  their  coat-of-arms  or  their 
name  boastfully  embroidered  in  that  place  where  only  the  divine 
name  and  the  symbols  of  divine  power  and  grace  belong.  Not  with- 
out reason  did  a  visitor  of  a  church  in  which  the  altar  showed  the 
embroidery  of  a  golden  crown  of  laurels,  inside  of  which  the  equally 
golden  name  of  'Bamewitz'  shone,  ask,  whether  this  was  the  altar  of 


21G      THE  SYMBOLISM  OP  THE    LUTHERAN  CHUBCH   BUILDING. 

the  unknown  God,  .which  St  Paul  had  found  in  Athens.**  It 
shows  a  spirit  of  irreverence  or  at  least  a  sad  lack  of  taste  and  tact, 
when  memorial  windows,  and  altar  cloths,  and  liturgical  books,  and 
Eucharistic  vessels,  and  what-not,  all  blazon  forth  the  pames  of  the 
individual  donors  or  of  the  societies  that  were  kind  enough  to  help 
the  cause  of  the  congregation  and  its  house  of  worship  along.  If 
anywhere,  the  admonition  that  the  left  hand  should  not  know  what 
the  right  hand  doeth,  is  applicable  in  the  furnishing  of  the  church. 
The  work  of  men  must  be  relegated  to  the  background,  the  words  and 
works  of  the  Lord  must  stand  out  prominently,  and  alone.  In  order 
to  carry  out  this  intention,  the  inscriptions  throughout  the  church 
must  be  selected  with  great  care.  If  an  inscription  is  desired  over 
the  northern  arch,  especially  if  this  be  the  arch  of  the  baptistery, 
the  verse  "He  that  believeth  and  is  baptized  shall  be  saved,"  Mark 
16,  16;  or,  "Suffer  the  little  children  to  come  unto  Me,"  Mark  10,  14; 
or,  "Feed  My  lambs,"  John  21,  15,  would  be  fitting.  For  the  central 
arch  a  congregation  might  choose,  "Lord,  I  have  loved  the  habitation 
of  Thy  house,"  Ps.  26,  8;  or,  ''Blessed  are  they  that  dwell  in  Thy 
house,"  Ps.  84,  4;  or,  "I  am  the  Way,  the  Truth,  and  the  Life,"  John 
14,  5.  6.  Over  the  south  arch,  where  the  pulpit  is  located,  may  ap- 
I)ear  the  admonition,  "He  that  is  of  God  heareth  God's  Words," 
John  8,  47;  or,  "He  that  heareth  you,  heareth  Me,"  Luke  10,  16;  or, 
"Blessed  are  they  that  hear  the  Word  of  God,  and  keep  it,"  Luke  11, 
28,  So  far  as  the  paraments  are  concerned,  the  inscriptions  will 
have  to  fit  the  season  of  the  church  year  for  which  they  are  used. 
For  the  white  paraments,  the  verse  'Tear  not,"  Luke  2,  10;  Matt.  28, 
5  is  very  appropriate,  or,  "Immanuel,"  Is.  7,  14;  or,  "Wonderful, 
Counselor,  the  Mighty  God,  the  Everlasting  Father,  the  Prince  of 
Peace,"  Is.  9,  6;  or,  "Blessing,  and  Honor,  and  Glory,  and  Power  be 
unto  Him,"  Bev.  5,  13.  The  red  paraments  might  have  the  inscrip- 
tion "Holy,  Holy,  Holy,"  Is.  6,  3 ;  or,  "Peace  I  leave  with  you,"  John 
14,  27;  or,  "Abide  in  Me,"  John  15,  4.  The  green  paraments  should 
receive  general  admonitions,  such  as  "Come,  for  all  things  are  now 
ready,"  Luke  14,  17;  or,  "O  taste  and  see  that  the  Lord  is  good," 
Ps.  34,  8;  or,  "The  Son  of  Man  is  come  to  seek  and  save  that  which 
was  lost,"  Luke  19,  10;  or,  "Continue  ye  in  my  love,"  John  15,  9. 
Appropriate  verses  for  the  violet  coverings  are,  "Thou  art  a  Priest 
forever,  after  the  order  of  MeJchizedek,"  Ps.  110,  4;  or,  "We  love 
Him,  because  He  first  loved  us,"  1  John  4,  19;  or,  "God  is  Love," 
1  John  4,  8.  For  the  black  paraments,  verses  from  Is.  53  are  most 
fitting,  or  simple  crosses  may  be  chosen. 

The  symbols  which  may  be  used  for  paraments,  emblems,  sculp- 
ture, and  in  part  also  for  mosaics,  etc.,  are  so  numerous  that  entire 
books  have  been  devoted  to  their  discussion,  notably  those  of  Smith, 


THE  SYMBOLISM  OF  THE   LUTHERAN  CHURCH   BUILDING.       217 

Collins,  Didron,  and  Qeldart.  Lack  of  space  compels  the  summariz- 
ing of  the  best  information  on  the  subject.  In  the  general  symbols, 
the  cross  takes  first  place.  It  may  be  without  the  summit,  in  the 
shape  of  the  capital  T ;  with  summit,  but  only  one  transverse  bar,  the 
usual  Latin  cross;  with  summit  and  two  transverse  bars,  the  upper 
to  symbolize  the  superscription;  with  summit  and  three  transverse 
bars,  the  third  indicating  the  foot-rest;  the  Greek  cross,  having  cross 
arms  of  equal  length ;  the  St.  Andrew's  cross,  in  the  form  of  a  multi- 
plication sign;  the  Celtic  cross,  which  is  a  Latin  cross  with  a  circle 
having  its  center  in  the  middle  of  the  cross-bars.  The  cross  is  also 
represented  in  connection  with  various  flowers  and  plants,  the  thistle, 
roses,  ears  of  wheat  and  grape-leaves,  pom^ranates,  lilies,  passion 
flowers,  and  clover  leaves. 

The  names  and  monograms  of  Christ  are  always  appropriate. 
Most  of  them  have  been  derived  from  the  Greek  capital  letters 
IHZ0Y2  XPIZTOZ.  The  simplest  abbreviation  was  made  by  tak- 
ing the  first,  second,  and  last  letter  of  each  word,  IH2  and  XP2!, 
or,  according  to  the  uncial  method,  IHC  and  XPC.  The  meaning  of 
these  abbreviations  soon  became  obscure,  and  so  new  meanings  were 
devised:  lesous  hemon  soter  for  the  Greek,  Jesus  hominum  Salvator 
in  the  Latin,  also  In  Hoc  Salus,  In  Hoc  Signo  (vinces) ;  Jesus,  Hei- 
land,  Seligmacher,  in  the  German.  It  is  best  to  explain  the  meaning 
of  this  monogram  to  the  congregation  or  else  discard  it  entirely.  The 
same  is  true  of  the  beautiful  Christogram  or  Chrisma  Chi  Rho  {^). 
Unless  the  people  understand  the  symbol,  it  has  no  value.  The  mono- 
gram Alpha  and  Omega,  in  various  combinations,  is  more  easily  ex- 
plained, on  account  of  the  Scripture  passages  Rev.  1,  8.  11 ;  21,  6 ; 
22,  13.  Since  the  Alpha  is  developed  from  the  triangle,  and  the 
Omega  from  the  circle,  a  combination  of  the  two  will  incidentally  be 
a  representation  of  the  Trinity,  of  the  Triune  God. 

The  symbolism  of  animals  is  especially  richly  developed,  the 
Physiologus  furnishing  the  artists  of  all  times  sufficient  material  for 
all  purposes.  The  ass  was  used  to  represent  humility  and  patience, 
the  beaver  as  a  type  separating  himself  from  works  of  the  flesh,  the 
bear  as  a  symbol  of  the  devil,  as  also  the  fox.  The  elephant  repre- 
sented the  continual  fight  against  the  dfagon,  the  goat  was  a  picture 
of  Christ  seeing  dangers  from  afar.  The  hart  represented  the  re- 
demption of  Jesus  Christ,  also  the  soul  longing  for  God's  mercy 
(Ps.  42,  1.  2.)  Jonah  and  the  whale  represented  the  resurrection  of 
Christ  (Matt.  12,  39.  40;  16,  4;  Luke  11,  29).  The  fish  was  in  use 
since  ancient  times,  since  the  Greek  letters  forming  its  name  are  the 
initial  letters  of  the  words  lesous  Christos  Theou  Hyios  Soter,  Jesus 
Christ,  Son  of  God,  Savior.  The  wolf  was  a  type  of  the  hypocrite. 
The  cock  typified  vigilance,  but  also  human  weakness  and  repentance, 


218       THE  SYMBOLISM  OF  THE  LUTHERAN  CHURCH   BUILDING. 

in  connection  with  the  fall  of  Peter.  The  devil  was  most  often  rep- 
resented as  a  griffin  and  as  a  dragon  and  serpent  (Rev.  12  and  13; 
20,  2).  Much  oftener,  however,  than  any  of  these  the  figure  of  the 
Lamb  is  in  use  (Is.  53,  7;  John  1,  29;  1  Cor.  5,  7;  1  Pet.  1,  19;  Rev. 
5,  6;  6,  16).  It  is  usually  a  type  of  the  Savior,  characterized  by  the 
cross  or  the  cross-pennant,  sometimes  as  the  suffering  Lamb,  whose 
blood  flows  into  the  chalice,  then  again  as  the  victorious  Lamb,  look- 
ing backwards  upon  the  conquered  enemies  (Rev.  5,  12.  13).  The 
Lamb  is  also  pictured  as  fighting  and  conquering  the  dragon,  as  sit- 
ting enthroned  upon  the  Book  with  the  seven  seals,  as  opening  the 
Book.  In  the  pictures  of  Christ  as  the  Good  Shepherd,  the  lambs,  of 
course,  represent  the  Christians.  The  picture  of  a  ram  is  sometimes 
used  as  a  type  of  Christ,  with  reference  to  Gen.  22,  13.  Christ  is 
also  represented  as  the  Lion  out  of  the  tribe  of  Judah  (Rev.  5,  5), 
and  the  virtues  of  the  ruler  of  the  animal  kingdom  ascribed  to  Him 
(cf.  Gen.  49,  9.  10).  But  the  lion  is  also  used  as  a  type  of  the  devil 
(1  Pet.  5,  8),  and  of  all  the  evils  which  the  Christians  should  conquer 
(Ps.  91,  13).  A  representation  of  sheep  often  referred  also  to  the 
apostles  gathered  about  the  Good  Shepherd. 

Among  the  birds  which  were  used  for  symbolic  representations 
the  dove  is  the  most  common.  It  is  a  type  of  the  Holy  Spirit  (Luke 
3,  22),  of  peace  and  the  hope  of  eternal  life  (Gen.  8,  11),  and  of  the 
Christians  (Matt.  10,  16).  The  eagle  represents  the  renewing  of 
youth,  which  should  characterize  the  Christians  (Ps.  103,  5;  Is.  40, 
31).  The  l^end  has  added  the  saying  that  an  eagle  may  renew  his 
youth  by  bathing  in  a  miraculous  fountain,  and  for  that  reason  he 
also  typifies  resurrection.  The  same  thought  is  connected  with  the 
phoenix,  which  was  said  to  come  forth  in  fuU  vigor  after  a  vokmtary 
death  by  fire.  The  story  is  found  as  early  as  Clement  (I  Clement, 
Chapter  XXV;  cf.  John  10,  18).  The  pelican,  which  was  formerly 
said  to  tear  open  its  breast  in  order  to  feed  its  young  with  its  blood, 
at  the  same  time  healing  them  from  a  serpent's  sting,  is  a  picture  of 
the  love  of  Christ  made  manifest  in  His  vicarious  suffering  and 
death.  The  hen  gathering  her  chickens  under  her  wings  (Matt.  23, 
37;  Luke  13,  34)  is  a  type  of  the  searching  love  of  Christ.  One  of 
the  most  peculiar  pictures  is  that  of  the  unicorn  who  was  hunted 
down  by  four  hounds,  mercy,  truth,  righteousness,  and  peace,  Ps.  85, 
10,  and  found  shelter  in  the  bosom  of  the  virgin  Mary,  thus  typify- 
ing the  Incamation.193) 

The  symbolism  of  flowers  and  plants  is  also  very  rich  and  may 
be  extended  by  careful  artists  almost  indefinitely.  The  picture  of 
the  vine  and  the  branches  is  explained  by  Jesus  Himself  (John  15). 
The  use  of  ears  of  wheat  and  grape-leaves  with  reference  to  the  Lord's 


193)  Cp.  Zeitschrift  fuer  deutsches  Altertum,  2,  282. 


THE  SYMBOLISM  OF  THE  LUTHERAN  CHUECH  BUILDING.       219 

Supper  is  also  easily  understood.  Thorns  and  thistles  are  usually 
pictured  in  connection  with  the  cross,  the  curse  of  God  (Gen.  3,  18) 
and  the  redemption  being  thus  represented  together.  If  the  cross  is 
wound  with  roses,  especially  five  roses  with  five  petals  each,  it  re- 
minds of  the  love  which  endured  five  wounds  for  the  sake  of  fallen 
humanity.  The  great  gift  of  the  Sacrament,  earned  through  the 
suffering  on  the  cross,  is  represented  by  a  cross  with  wheat-ears  and 
grape-leaves.  If  pom^ranates  are  used  in  that  connection,  they  re- 
fer to  the  life  brought  by  the  vicarious  work  of  Christ,  for  this  fruit 
represents  the  tree  of  life  and  the  fulness  of  divine  grace.  If  the 
cross  is  surrounded  by  lilies,  it  reminds  of  the  innocence  and  holiness 
which  is  the  result  of  the  agony  on  the  cross.  If  the  cross  is  deco- 
rated with  palm  leaves,  it  points  forward  to  the  final  victory  of  all 
those  who  enroll  under  this  emblem.  The  passion  flower  and  the 
clover  leaf  are  also  used  in  this  connection.  The  lily  (calla  or  Easter) 
is  also  used  in  other  combinations,  to  represent  purity  and  holiness. 
Palm  branches  are  used  to  represent  the  victory  of  all  the  saints 
(Rev.  7,  9),  as  also  the  crown  with  a  wreath  of  palm  leaves  or  laurel 
(2  Tim.  4,  8;  1  Pet.  5,  4;  Jas.  1,  12;  Rev.  2,  10;  4,  10).  The  rose 
may  be  used  alone,  with  reference  to  the  rose  of  Sharon  (Song  of 
Sol.,  2,  1).  The  water-lily,  the  blue  bell,  ivy,  and  oak  leaves  are  also 
employed  with  excellent  effect. 

When  symbols  representing  the  Trinity  or  any  person  of  the 
Godhead  are  used,  the  nimbus  should  be  employed.  This  may  take 
the  shape  of  an  elliptical  aureole,  of  a  circular,  triangular,  square, 
cruciform,  or  ray-cross  nimbus,  of  luminous  clusters,  of  a  sun  with 
seven  or  fourteen  rays,  etc.  The  aureole  which  surrounds  the  whole 
body  is  a  characteristic  of  the  divinity.  God  the  Father  was  form- 
erly often  represented  as  an  old  man,  the  "Ancient  of  Days"  (Dan. 
7),  and  the  Middle  Ages  did  not  hesitate  to  picture  the  entire  Trinity 
as  persons.  Such  realism  interferes  with  a  reverent  conception  of 
God.  The  presence  of  God  the  Father  may  be  intimated  by  a  hand 
extended  from  the  clouds,  either  in  benediction  or  clasping  a  crown, 
or  the  name  of  Jehovah  may  be  inscribed  within  a  radiating  circle. 
Many  of  the  figures  used  for  Christ  were  mentioned  above.  The  only 
-  ones  that  might  be  added  are  those  of  a  pilgrim  (Luke  24)  and  of  an 
angel,  the  form  in  which  the  Old  Testament  represents  Him.  The 
Holy  Ghost;  is  shown  either  as  a  plain  white  dove,  or  one  with  six 
wings.  The  Trinity  is  represented  by  an  equilateral  triangle,  by  a 
triangle  with  the  word  Jehovah  inside,  by  two  triangles  interlocking 
and  forming  a  star,  by  an  equilateral  triangle  inscribed  in  a  circle, 
by  three  equal  circles  interlocking,  sometimes  with  their  centers 
joined  and  forming  a  triangle.  Other  representations  of  the  God- 
head are  not  to  be  recommended.    The  Old  Testament  types  of  Christ 


220      THE  SYMBOLISM  OF  THE  LUTHEEAN  CHURCH  BUILDING. 

are  used  very  generally,  especially  the  figures  of  Isaac  and  of 
Melchizedek. 

Symbols  and  types  of  a  general  nature  are  the  anchor,  signify- 
ing hope  and  firm  reliance  upon  God;  the  star  (Num.  24,  17);  the 
sun  (Mai.  4,  2)  and  the  sunflower;  a  ship,  as  a  type  of  the  Church, 
sailing  over  the  stormy  seas  of  this  world  toward  the  eternal  harbor; 
chalice  and  paten,  to  represent  the  Eucharist;  a  font,  to  remind  of 
Baptism;  the  instruments  used  for  torturing  Christ,  the  spear,  the 
nails,  the  crown  of  thorns ;  the  armor  of  the  Christians  (Eph.  6) ; 
the  open  Bible,  representing  the  Gospel;  two  tables,  representing  the 
Law;  the  flaming  torch;  the  cross  with  the  crown,  and  many  others. 

The  symbols  of  the  four  evangelists  are  especially  interesting, 
since  they  are  based  upon  Ezek.  1  compared  with  Rev.  4.  The  four 
cherubs  are  distinguished  as  the  man-cherub,  the  lion-cherub,  the  ox 
or  calf-cherub,  and  the  eagle-cherub.  The  first  cherub  was  assigned 
to  Matthew,  since  he  places  the  emphasis  upon  the  human  descent  of 
Christ.  The  second  cherub  was  assigned  to  Mark,  since  he  empha- 
sizes the  victorious  power  of  Christ,  by  which  He  conquered  sin  and 
death.  The  third  cherub  was  assigned  to  Luke,  since  he  pictures  the 
sacrificial  act  of  Christ  in  giving  His  own  body  for  the  sins  of  the 
world.  The  fourth  cherub  was  assigned  to  John,  since  he  emphasizes 
the  divine  origin  of  Christ  and  His  return  to  God.  These  symbols 
are  usually  arranged  so  that  they  form  a  cross,  the  lion  on  the  left, 
the  ox  on  the  right,  the  man  above,  and  the  eagle  below;  or  they  form 
a  rectangle,  with  the  man  and  the  eagle  above,  and  the  lion  and  the 
ox  below,  from  left  to  right.  The  symbols  must  always  be  placed  in 
connection  with  some  symbol  of  the  Godhead  or,  preferably,  of  Christ, 
the  monograms  making  a  very  effective  center  for  a  group. 

It  will  undoubtedly  prove  of  great  value  if  the  parables  of  Christ 
and  incidents  from  His  ministry  were  employed  oftener.  The  Nativ- 
ity might  be  shown  in  the  figure  of  the  Christ-child,  the  Passion  in 
the  Ecce  homo,  the  Resurrection  in  the  figure  of  the  Victorious 
Christ.  The  feeding  of  the  multitude,  the  parable  of  the  sower  and 
the  seed,  of  the  draw-net  cast  into  the  sea,  of  the  vineyard,  and  many 
others  suggest  symbols  and  figures  which  could  very  well  be  carried 
out  in  a  conventional  manner,  both  in  the  fresco-work  of  a  church 
and  in  the  embroidery  of  some  of  the  paraments.  Whatever  figures 
are  chosen,  however,  must  either  be  intelligible  or  be  njade  intelli- 
gible to  the  people,  so  that  they  may  appreciate  and  enjoy  their  house 
of  worship  all  the  more.  If  other  denominations  find  it  useful  to 
have  even  special  descriptions  of  their  churches  and  all  the  decora- 
tive features  printed,  the  Lutherans  should  at  least  take  time  to  study 
the  beautiful  appointments  which  are  their  heritage,  and  not  suffo- 
cate any  evidence  of  awakening  understanding  by  a  lack  of  interest. 


THE  PARISH  HOUSE.  221 

CHAPTER  8. 
^     The  Parish  House. 

In  the  first  centuries  after  the  formal  recognition  of  the  Chris- 
tian Church,  tlie  house  of  worship  was  not  the  only  edifice  which  the 
congregation  erected.  It  was  merely  the  most  prominent  of  a  groui) 
which  included  the  baptistery,  chapels,  a  tower,  and  often  hospices, 
hospitals,  schools,  baths,  and  the  dwellings  of  the  clergy .i^^)  i^  our 
days,  many  of  these  buildings  are  no  longer  erected  in  such  close 
proximity  to  the  churches,  although  many  of  them  are  still  controlled, 
directly  or  indirectly,  by  individual  church  bodies.  However,  the 
clergyman's  dwelling  and  the  parish  house  are  found  also  in  America 
and  deserve  at  least  a  brief  mention,  in  order  to  round  out  the  pres- 
ent discussion. 

It  is  very  unfortunate  that  the  parish  house,  in  many  cases, 
shows  no  evidence  of  being  set  apart  by  the  congregation  for  the  di- 
rect or  indirect  service  of  the  Lord.  And  yet,  it  is  not  intended  for, 
and  should  not  be  looked  upon,  as  a  mere  club  house.  The  affairs 
that  are  carried  on  in  its  rooms  are  such  as  pertain  to  the  work  of 
the  congregation;  they  are  under  its  control  and  guided  by  the  Word 
of  God.  It  would  be  eminently  fitting,  therefore,  if  this  fact  were  in 
some  way  indicated  in  the  architecture  and  arrangement  of  the  build- 
ing. It  would  not  be  necessary  to  carry  out  an  elaborate  scheme. 
But  if  we  remember  that  the  guild-halls,  the  hotels  de  ville,  and 
many  other  public  and  semi-public  buildings  of  southern  Grermany, 
northern  France,  and  Belgium,  were  erected  in  the  Komanesque  and 
Gothic  style,  and  that  the  Perpendicular  and  Tudor  Gothic  of  Eng- 
land has  its  particular  branch  in  the  scholastic,  academic,  or  collegiate 
style,  it  will  be  apparent  that  the  difficulties  of  designing  are  not  so 
great  as  might  seem  at  first  glance.  The  trouble  is  that  too  many 
congregations  build  in  an  entirely  haphazard  manner,  without  a  defi- 
nite plan.  The  fact  that  the  church  and  the  adjoining  parish  house 
belong  together,  and  that  the  latter  also  serves  the  congregation,  may 
well  be  expressed  in  the  style  of  the  building.  There  are  a  few  fine 
examples  in  America  to-day.  And  the  laudable  custom,  which  dates 
back  to  the  time  of  the  great  abbey  schools,  of  having  the  parish 
house  connected  with  the  church  by  means  of  a  covered  corridor  or 
cloister  is  one  that  can  be  recommended  most  heartily.  It  is  the 
same  idea  which  was  followed  on  a  large  scale  in  the  missions  of 
southern  California,  thus  rendering  the  grouping  of  buildings  a  fine 
expression  of  the  Christian  community  spirit. 

It  will  hardly  be  necessary  to  discuss  at  any  length  the  useful- 


194)  Lowrie,  Monuments  of  the  Early  Church,  182 — 184. 


222  THE  PARISH  HOUSE. 

ness  of  such  a  building  and  the  services  it  may  render  the  congrega- 
tion in  various  ways.  It  will  include  rooms  for  the  parish  school, 
which,  if  possible,  should  not  be  a  mere  Saturday  or  Sunday  or  after- 
noon school.  If  it  contains  the  rooms  for  the  parish  school,  these 
must  be  arranged  and  equipped  according  to  all  the  requirements  of 
sound  pedagogy  and  all  the  rules  of  hygiene.  Dresslar's  "American 
Schoolhouses,"  Bruce's  series  of  Books  on  School  Architecture,  and 
other  modern  books  will  provide  all  the  necessary  information  on 
this  subject.  The  Sunday-school,  if  possible,  and  especially  when  it 
is  a  graded  school,  should  not  be  housed  in  the  basement  of  the 
church.  The  ''Akron  Plan"  has  been  much  recommended,  according 
to  which  the  Sunday-school  auditorium  is  built  semi-circular  in  form, 
with  an  added  width  equal  to  one-fourth  the  radius.  The  separate 
classrooms  are  provided  for  by  means  of  alcoves  surrounding  the 
main  auditorium.  The  latter  receives  light  from  clerestory  windows. 
It  would  seem  far  more  appropriate  to  have  separate  rooms  for  each 
department  of  the  Sunday-school.  The  common  meeting  place  of 
the  children  should  be  the  church,  where  they  should  gather  with  the 
congregation  for  regular  services.  Where  this  is  found  impossible, 
the  children  might  meet  for  opening  exercises  in  the  large  hall  of  the 
parish  house,  and  then  proceed  to  their  classrooms  for  the  lessons. 
If  Sunday-schools  are  a  necessary  evil,  let  them  at  least  make  the 
most  of  the  very  limited  time,  and  let  the  school  be  managed  and 
conducted  like  a  real  school,  with  a  definite  object  and  high  ideals. 
In  most  cases,  the  ro6m.  for  confirmands  or  catechumens  will 
also  be  located  in  the  parish  .house.  In  large  classes,  some  of  the 
regular  school  equipment  is  needed  at  that  time.  The  ladies'  parlors, 
work-room,  and  kitchen  will  also  find  their  place  in  the  parish  house. 
A  separate  entrance  should  be  provided,  in  order  that  any  class  in 
session  may  not  be  disturbed  by  the  opening  and  closing  of  doors,  etc. 
Whether  there  is  a  special  men's  club  or  not,  one  or  two  rooms  may 
be  set  aside  for  their  use,  since  there  are  many  committee  meetings 
which  call  for  a  certain  amount  of  privacy.  The  choir  should  also 
have  a  meeting  room,  though  the  rehearsals  may  often  take  place  in 
the  hall  or  in  the  church.  A  church  library  may  be  combined  with 
the  room  for  the  associations  of  the  young  people.  If  there  are  any 
other  organizations  in  the  congregation,  it  will  be  found  possible  to- 
provide  a  meeting  place  for  them  also,  since,  in  many  cases,  efficiency 
demands  that  all  the  rooms  be  in  use  a  large  part  of  the  time.  One- 
room,  however,  ought  to  be  provided  and  furnished  for.  one  special 
purpose,  if  the  congregation  will  be  found  willing,  and  that  is  a  nur- 
sery. Many  mothers  find  it  impossible  to  attend  divine  services  with 
any  degree  of  regularity,  because  they  have  small  babies  and  have  no- 


THE   PARISH   HOUSE.  223 

one  at  home  to  take  care  of  them.  If  the  congregation  would  pro- 
vide a  nursery  and  engage  a  nurse  for  Sunday  mornings,  such 
mothers  would  have  an  opportunity  to  come  to  services  regularly.  It 
is  here  that  deaconesses  would  find  a  most  interesting  branch  of 
their  work. 

The  need  of  a  hall  has  been  emphasized  above.  It  would  serve 
as  a  meeting  place  for  the  voters  of  the  congregation  or  of  any  large 
organization.  It  could  also  be  equipped  with  platform,  stereopticon, 
curtain,  etc.,  for  lectures  and  entertainments.  The  building  laws  of 
the  city  or  state  will  provide  for  the  proper  number  of  exits,  fire 
escapes,  etc. 

If  the  parish  house  is  thus  equipped,  it  may  be  a  feature  of  great 
moment  in  the  life  and  work  of  the  congregation,  in  order  that  our 
beloved  Lutheran  Church,  in  church,  school,  and  general  parish  work, 
may  be  a  power  for  good  in  every  community,  city,  and  state,  to  the 
glory  of  God  and  the  temporal  and  eternal  welfare  of  many  souls. 


BCXDK  II. 
A  HANDBOOK 

OF 

LITURGICS,  HYMNOLOGY,  AND 
HEORTOLOGY, 

ESPECIALLY  FROM  THE  STANDPOINT 
OF  THE 

AMERICAN  LUTHERAN  CHURCH. 


Kretzmann,  Christian  Art.  15 


INTRODUCTION. 


"The  emancipation  which  the  religion  of  Jesus  Christ  has  brought 
to  the  spiritual  life  of  man  embraces  the  freedom  from  fixed  forms 
of  worship.  The  ceremonial  statutes  in  Exodus,  Leviticus,  and  Num- 
bers, which  were  laid  down  for  the  Church  of  the  Old  Covenant,  have 
no  covmterpart  in  the  New  Testament.  The  Church  of  the  New 
Dispensation  has  no  divinely  prescribed  liturgy  and  agenda.  Still, 
the  New  Testament  abounds  in  admonitions  to  the  followers  of  Christ 
to  engage  in  private  and  public  individual  and  joint  worship  of  God. 
'The  true  worshipers  shall  worship  the  Father  in  spirit  and  in  truth; 
for  the  Father  seeketh  such  to  worship  Him'  (John  4,  23),  —  this 
saying  of  Christ  is  the  only  regulation  which  the  Author  and  Fin- 
isher of  the  faith  that  saves  men  has  considered  it  necessary  to  human 
acts  of  worship  offered  to  the  true  God.  This  regulation  is  compre- 
hensive, but  it  relates  to  the  inward  motive  and  quality  of  the  wor- 
shiper rather  than  to  the  external  expression  and  features  of  his 
worship.  Christ  has  taught  men  that  God  esteems  the  doer  more 
than  the  deed,  the  devout  heart  more  than  an  act  of  homage,  which 
even  a  hypocrite  may  offer  whose  heart  is  far  from  the  Lord  and 
whose  worship,  accordingly,  is  vain  and  valueless.  When  men  draw 
near  to  God  with  a  true  heart,  in  full  assurance  of  faith,  having 
their  hearts  sprinkled  from  an  evil  conscience,  and  their  bodies  washed 
with  pure  water  (Heb.  10,  19 — 25),  He  condescends  to  join  them  in 
their  public  assemblies,  and  hallows  by  His  presence,  every  form  of 
worship  which  the  character  of  the  day  and  season  suggests  to  their 
faith.  His  presence  is  conditioiuid  on  one  thing  only,  viz.,  that  they 
must  meet  in  His  name  (Matt.  18,  20). 

"Evangelical  freedom  from  the  old  ceremonialism  does  not  mean 
license  or  extreme  individualism.  There  may  be,  especially  in  the 
joint  public  worship  of  Christians,  things  that  are  unbecoming  (See 
1  Cor.  11,  14;  Col.  2,  16 ff.).  The  apostolic  warning:  'Let  all  things 
be  done  decently  and  in  order'  (1  Cor.  14,  40),  was  uttered  with  ref- 
erence to  forms  of  public  worship.  Li  a  similar  connection  the 
same  apostle  has  declared:  'All  things  are  lawful  to  me,  but  all 
things  are  not  expedient;  all  thuigs  are  lawful  for  me,  but  all  things 
edify  not'  (1  Cor.  10,  23),  and  has  urged  the  members  of  the  church 
to  'follow  after  things  wherewith  one  may  edify  another'  (Rom. 
14,  19)." 


228  '  INTEODUCTION. 

These  paragraphs  from  the  new  "Liturgy  and  Agenda"  (St. 
Louis,  1917)  may  fitly  serve  to  give  the  reason  for  any  extended  litur- 
gical discussion.  It  is  gratifying  in  itself,  of  course,  that  a  new  in- 
terest in  liturgies  is  becoming  increasingly  manifest  in  the  Lutheran 
Church  of  America.  But  if  the  interest  is  confined  to  a  few  students 
and  synodical  committees  whose  starting-point  may  have  been  arche- 
ology or  music  or  even  the  liturgical  drama,  one  can  expect  neither 
intelligent  cooperation  nor  reasonable  application  of  liturgical  know- 
ledge, even  with  the  best  of  apparatus.  The  position  of  a  great  many 
ministers  in  our  day  is  very  much  like  that  of  a  philologist  who,  for 
the  first  time  since  his  undergraduate  days,  is  told  to  enter  a  well- 
equipped  laboratory  of  physics,  but  not  for  the  purpose  of  studying, 
but  of  teaching.  In  the  words  of  the  modem  undergraduate,  who  is 
often  more  terse  and  epigrammatic  than  polished:  It  can't  be  done. 
To  open  the  flood-gates  of  beautiful  and  historically  correct  liturgi- 
cal forms  and  acts  upon  an  unsuspecting  and  untrained  multitude 
may  result  in  a  disappointing  and  even  disastrous  inundation  instead 
of  the  beneficial  irrigation  which  was  proposed.  It  is  necessary,  nay, 
it  is  essential  that  the  clergy  as  well  as  the  laity  receive  the  infor- 
mation and  training  which  will  enable  all  to  appreciate  properly  and 
to  use  correctly  the  forms  of  service  which  are  in  use  in  the  Lutheran 
Church.  For  we  say  it,  not  without  a  certain  amount  of  pride  and 
gratitude  to  the  Giver  of  all  good  gifts,  that  our  liturgy  is  the  beauti- 
ful and  pure  heritage  of  the  ages.  And  it  is  edifying  in  the  best 
sense  of  the  term.  It  gives  proper  attention  to  the  sacramental  as 
well  as  to  the  sacrificial  side  of  worship,  thus  offering  a  true  medium 
to  awaken  and  foster  devotion.  And  it  is  thoroughly  doctrinal,  it 
places  the  proper  emphasis  upon  the  great  central  doctrine  of  Chris- 
tianity, of  justification  of  the  poor  sinner  by  faith,  through  the  merits 
of  Jesus  Christ  the  Savior. 

In  order,  then,  that  the  glorious  heritage  of  the  entire  Christian 
era,  which  we  have  in  the  liturgj*  of  our  Church,  may  not  suffer  for 
want  of  proper  appreciation  or  understanding,  but  that  the  average 
intelligent  person  may  feel  at  home  wherever  its  beautiful  acts  are 
in  use,  a  short  but  comprehensive  treatise  on  liturgies  is  here  offered. 

The  scope  of  the  discussion  is  indicated  by  the  word  liturgy  it- 
self and  its  outline  by  the  order  of  worship  and  the  sacred  acts  fol- 
lowed in  the  usual  Church  Book  and  Agenda.  The  etymology  of  the 
word  liturgy  has  been  investigated  most  carefully  by  Suicer,!^^) 
Cremer,i^6)  and  others.  Luther,  according  to  these  scholars,  was  al- 
together right,  when  he  maintained,  over  against  the  claims  of  the 


195)  Thesaurus  ecclesiasticus. 

196)  Biblisch-theologisches  Woerterbvch. 


INTRODUCTION.  229 

Koman  Catholics  that  liturgj'  meant  a  sacrifice,  the  derivation  from 
the  public  ministry  in  the  Greek  cities:  "But  we  say  that  the  word 
in  no  way  means  a  sacrifice,  but  the  administration  of  every  office  or 
service,  whether  it  be  secular  or  spiritual."  ^^")  There  is  also  an  ex- 
cellent discussion  of  the  etymology  of  leitourgia  in  the  Apologia  Con- 
fessionis.  Art.  XXIV,  De  Missa,  "De  vocabulis  missae."  ^^^)  In  the 
ancient  Athenian  state  the  functions  of  leitourgia  were  principally 
those  of  publicum  officium  reipublicae  praestare,  and  these  functions 
often  had  a  religious  aspect  in  connection  with  the  public  spectacles 
{XetTos  =  Xi]uoi  =  dr}fi6oTog;  EPnj  =  ieydCofiai).  For  this  reason,  the 
verb  leitourgein  and  the  nouns  leitourgia  and  leitourgos  were  used 
by  the  LXX  to  express  the  Hebrew  Levitical  terms  sheret,  abad, 
ahodah,  and  moshatet,  resi)ectively  (Ex.  29,  30;  30,  20;  Num.  4,  37; 
Joel  1,  9.  13;  Ezek.  45,  5;  46,  24).  This  use  of  the^  terms  was  familiar 
to  the  New  Testament  writers,  and  they  employed  them  frequently, 
especially  with  reference  to  the  temple  service  (Luke  1,  23;  Heb.  9, 
21;  10,  11;  8,  2.  6;  Acts  13,  2),  but  also  to  denote  any  ministering 
which  served  spiritual  needs  (Phil.  2,  25.  30;  Bom.  15,  16.  27)  directly 
or  indirectly.  The  Church  Fathers  made  it  a  technical  term  to  de- 
scribe the  special  ministrations  of  the  Christian  cultus,  embracing 
divine  services  and  all  sacred  acts.  Thus  Clemens  Romanus  say^ 
that  the  Master  "commanded  us  to  celebrate  sacrifices  and  services" 
(prosphoras  kai  leitourgias),  and  speaks  of  the  "proper  ministrations 
of  the  High  Priest"  (idiai  leitourgiai).  I  Epistle  to  Corinthians, 
Chapter  XL.  The  liturgy,  then,  properly  speaking,  is  the  sum  total 
of  all  the  fixed  parts  of  public  Christian  worship  and  sacred  acts.^^) 
The  meaning  of  the  word  is  often,  however,  restricted  to  the  desig- 
nation of  a  particular  order  of  service,  especially  to  the  order  of  the 
communion  service,  as  found  in  certain  ancient  rituals.  The  science 
of  liturgies,  therefore,  deals  with  the  established  acts  and  orders  of 
divine  service  in  the  Church,  so  far  as  they  are  the  acts  of  the  whole 
body,  and,  with  the  exception  of  the  sermon,  are  performed  in  the 
name  of  the  whole  body.  It  is  necessary  that  every  pastor  be  a  good 
liturgist  and  conduct  the  service,  apply  the  liturgy,  properly.  And 
while  not  essential,  it  is  highly  desirable  that  the  pastor  be  also  a 
liturgiologist,  in  a  measure  at  least  conversant  with  the  subject  of 
liturgies  as  a  science. 

The  scope  of  Lutheran  liturgies  and  its  task  is  determined  by 
the  sphere  and  object  of  the  services  for  whose  ministrations  it  is 
intended.  The  liturgj'  should  express  the  consensus  of  the  orthodox 
Church  in  all  ages  and  places.     In  the  prayers,  Psalms,  hynms,  and 


r 


197)  Zrrei  AUhamUuuyen  von  der  Liturgie,  16,  1009. 

198)  Mueller,  266,  §§  78—87. 

199)  Fuerbringer,  Litiirgik,  1;  Horn,  Outlines  of  Liturgies,  8. 


230  INTBODUCTION. 

spiritual  songs,  we  are  united  with  the  true  believers  of  all  times,  for 
they  are  the  visible  and  audible  expression  of  the  faith  of  the  in- 
visible Church.  Since  all  the  forms  of  Christian  services  make  ex- 
tensive use  of  Scriptural  passages  and  expressions,  their  continual 
use  will  be  conducive  to  the  spread  of  the  faith  and  its  maintenance 
in  the  midst  of  adverse  conditions,  such  as  heretical  teaching.  It  is 
necessary,  also,  that  the  liturgy  express  the  doctrinal  position  of  the 
church  body  employing  it,  although  this  use  is  limited,  to  some  extent, 
by  the  considerations  stated  above.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  almost  all 
liturgies  of  antiquity,  and  most  of  the  modern  orders,  contain  some 
expressions  which  will  reveal,  upon  closer .  investigation,  the  view- 
point of  the  body  in  question  with  regard  to  some  doctrine.  The 
Monophysite  churches  of  the  far  i'ast  as  well  as  the  Reformed  churches 
of  these  latter  days  present  evidence  of  their  belief  in  the  wording  of 
their  prayers.  And  the  Lutheran  liturgy  will  very  properly  empha- 
size the  fundamental  doctrines  of  Christianity,  as  they  have  been 
brought  forth  out  of  the  darkness  of  the  Papal  errors.  The  liturgy 
should  finally  express,  not  individual  devotion  and  worship,  but  the 
form  of  worship  of  the  whole  congregation,  and  preferably  of  the 
whole  church  body  with  which  the  congregation  is  united.  In  the 
liturgical  part  of  the  service,  it  is  not  the  man  whose  individuality 
shall  find  expression,  but  the  liturgist  who  is  expressing  a  comtaon 
faith,  by  reason  of  a  common  call,  in  a  common,  fixed  form. 

With  these  facts  in  mind,  the  task  of  a  student  of  liturgies  is 
readily  defined.  With  a  foimdation  of  the  historical  development  of 
the  form  of  service  he  will  make  a  careful  study  of  the  various  parts 
of  worship  in  their  sequence  and  interrelation,  trying  every  section 
by  Holy  Scripture  and  by  history,  and  correct  or  amend  such  forms 
as  are  inconsistent  with  these  principles  and  out  of  harmony  with 
the  doctrinal  position  of  the  Lutheran  Church.  He  may  at  the  same 
time  become  sufiiciently  interested  to  make  a  detailed  study  of  vari- 
ous ancient  liturgies  or  periods  in  the  development  of  any  individual 
order,  or  of  some  related  subject,  such  as  church  architecture  and 
ecclesiastical  art,  church  music,  heraldics,  numismatics,  sphragistics, 
and  others. 

It  is  manifestly  impossible,  within  the  bounds  of  a  handbook,  to 
offer  more  than  a  summary  of  liturgies,  biit  in  order  that  it  may 
serve  its  purpose,  the  following  outline  will  be  followed.  In  the  first 
part,  a  history  of  the  liturgy  will  be  given,  showing  the  spread  and 
the  development  of  the  order  of  services  in  the  several  countries.  An 
outline  of  hymnology  will  next  be  offered,  including  the  history  of 
Christian  church  poetry  from  ancient  times.  A  full  part  will  be  de- 
voted to  heortology,  for  a  better  understanding  of  the  church  year. 
Since  the  handbook  is  to  serve  principally  the  Lutheran  Church  in 


INTRODUCTION.  231 

America,  a  full  section  will  be  given  over  to  the  Lutheran  services 
and  sacred  forms.  The  great  danger  in  presenting  these  subjects 
will  lie  in  the  tendency  toward  not  maintaining  a  proper  balance, 
since  the  many  by-paths  that  interest  the  investigator  offer  alluring 
attractions,  whose  detailed  descriptions  may  interrupt  the  sequence 
of  thought.  If  a  kind  indulgence  will  overlook  an  occasional  lapse 
from  the  path  of  consecutive  narrative  and  condone  a  Lutheran's 
excusable  pride  in  the  treasures  of  his  church,  the  study  of  the  dis- 
sertation presented  here  may  be  as  great  a  pleasure  to  the  reader  as 
it  was  a  delight  to  the  writer. 


PART  I. 
History  of  the  Liturgy. 


CHAPTER  1. 
The  Old  Testament  Cultus. 

There  are  several  reasons  why  the  study  of  the  Old  Testament 
cultus  has  a  compelling  interest  for  the  student  of  liturgies.  It  is 
not  merely  the  historical  and  archeological  side  of  the  question  which 
beckons  him  on,  which  also,  as  in  the  case  of  Baehr  (8ymholih  des 
mosaischen  KuUus)  leads  him  on  to  an  examination  of  heathen  re- 
ligious forms  and  customs,  with  conjectures  and  hypotheses  as  to 
their  possible  influence  upon  the  cultus  of  the  Jews.  Of  much  greater 
interest  is  the  study  of  the  Old  Testament  cultus  on  account  of  the 
significance  of  its  types  from  the  standpoint  of  the  fulfilment  in  the 
New  Dispensation.  To  compare  the  account  of  the  Old  Testament 
ordinances  with  the  fulfilment  of  the  types  as  described  in  the  Epistle 
to  the  Hebrews  or  in  certain  parts  of  the  letters  of  St.  Paul,  is  in- 
tensely interesting  and  remarkably  illuminating.  And,  in  addition 
to  this,  the  present  chapter  will  serve  to  show  to  what  extent  we  may 
expect  to  find  the  New  Testament  church  indebted  to  the  Hebrew 
temple  and  synagog  for  liturgical  expressions,  forms,  and  "customs. 

The  temple  services,  especially  after  the  first  temple  had  been 
completed,  and  also  when  the  beautiful  edifice  of  Herod  had  been 
erected,  were  elaborate  and  impressive.  K  one  compares  the  account 
of  the  Talmud  with  the  Old  Testament  injunctions  and  then  reads 
the  description  of  Edersheim,  Kliefoth,  and  other  scholars,  a  com- 
plete picture  may  be  gained.  When  the  first  rosy  streaks  of  dawn 
over  the  eastern  hills  heralded  the  breaking  of  the  day,  everything 
was  made  ready  for  the  mornin;]'  sacrifice.  The  priests  on  duty  as- 
sembled in  the  Court  of  the  Polished  Stones,  and  it  was  determined 
by  lot  who  was  to  officiate  at  the  altar  of  incense  and  to  whom  the 
ministrations  at  the  altar  of  burnt  offerings  were  assigned.  Blasts 
of  the  silver  trumpets  announced  the  opening  of  the  temple  gates. 
The  officiating  priests  were  attired  in  the  gorgeous  vestments  of  their 
office  and  hurried  to  their  stations.  The  Levites  also  donned  their 
ministerial  garments  and  prepared  to  take  part  in  the  liturgy.  Their 
simple  white  linen  overdress  was  replaced,  under  Agrippa  II,  by  the 
full  priestly  garments.  The  priests  who  were  to  cleanse  the  altar  and 
prepare  it  for  the  sacrifices  of  the  day,  were  told  off  first,  then  those 
who  were  to  offer  the  sacrifices  and  officiate  at  the  cleansing  of  the 
candlestick  and  the  altar  of  incense.     Then  came  the  section  of  those 


THE  OLD  TESTAMENT   CULTUS.  233 

wliose  duty  it  was  to  burn  incense  in  the  Holy  Place,  an  honor  most 
highly  esteemed  and  most  jealously  sought  and  guarded.  The  last  to 
be  chosen  were  the  priests  that  officiated  at  the  concluding  rites,  in 
the  offering  of  the  sacrifices.  Now,  according  to  the  account  of 
Edersheim,  the  morning  prayer  was  offered,  Deut.  26,  15;  Neh.  11, 
17.  It  had  undoubtedly,  at  the  time  of  the  third  temple,  assumed  a 
definite  liturgical  form,  including  thanksgiving  and  eulogy,  suppli- 
cation, petition,  and  intercession,  and  closing  with  a  great  doxology. 
By  this  time  the  first  two  divisions  of  priests  had  performed  their 
ministrations  and,  as  the  morning  light  "advanced  as  far  as  Hebron," 
the  morning  sacrifice  was  made,  to  which  the  blasts  from  the  silver 
trumpets  had  invited  the  people.  The  lamb  was  slain,  and  its  blood 
was  sprinkled  against  the  altar  according  to  the  prescribed  ritual. 
It  was  then  cut  up  according  to  the  rules,  and  the  six  priests  who  had 
charge  of  this  work  for  the  day,  made  the  sacrifice  on  the  great  altar. 
Before  the  third  division  of  priests  went  out  to  perform  the  rites 
allotted  to  them,  a  prayer  of  preparation  was  offered  and  the  ten 
commandments  and  the  shema  repeated  by  the  assembly.  The  in- 
censing priest  and  his  assistants  then  proceeded  to  their  posts,  and 
after  due  preparation  and  the  withdrawal  of  the  helpers,  the  burning 
of  the  incense  took  place  amid  the  deep  silence  of  the  assembled  mul- 
titudes, who  prayed  in  the  outer  courts  during  the  hour  of  incense. 
After  the  work  of  the  fourth  lot  had  also  been  performed,  the  in- 
censing priest  or  the  high  priest  himself  spoke  the  Aaronic  blessing. 
Num.  6,  24—26. 

This  concluded  the  first  part  of  the  daily  services.  The  next  act 
was  the  presenting  of  the  high  priest's  daily  meat-offering,  followed 
by  the  appropriate  drink-off eriag.  Then  came  the  temple  music, 
which  was  undoubtedly  the  most  impressive  part  of  the  liturgy.  To 
hear  the  well-trained  voices  of  the  Levites'  chorus  chant  the  three 
sections  of  the  Psalm  of  the  day,  accompanied  by  simple,  but  effective 
orchestral  music,  a  loud  blast  from  the  silver  trumpets  indicating  the 
division  of  the  chant,  must  have  been  a  memorable  experience.  On 
the  first  day  of  the  week  Psalm  24  was  chanted,  on  the  second,  Psalm 
48,  on  the  third.  Psalm  82,  on  the  fourth.  Psalm  94,  and  the  fifth. 
Psalm  81,  on  the  sixth.  Psalm  93,  and  on  the  Sabbath,  Psalm  92. 
This  closed  the  morning  service.  There  were  now  more  than  four 
hours  left  for  the  sacrifices  and  offerings  which  private  Israelites  might 
bring.  Often  the  bringing  of  such  individual  sacrifices  continued 
till  near  the  time  of  the  evening  sacrifice.^^O) 

The  time  for  the  .evening  sacrifice  was  from  two  and  one-half  to 
three  and  one-half  hours  after  high  noon,  excepting  on  the  eve  of  the 


200)  Cp.  Edersheim,  The  Temple,  Chapter  Vni. 


234  THE  OLD  TESTAMENT  CULTUS. 

Passover,  when  it  was  offered  an  liour  earlier.  The  order  of  services 
at  the  evening  sacrifice  resembled  in  all  respects  that  of  the  morning, 
but  only  the  incensing  priest  was  determined  by  lot,  who  performed 
his  work  after  the  last  pieces  of  sacrifices  had  been  laid  on  the  fire  of 
the  altar.    In  the  evening,  the  Aaronic  blessing  was  usually  omitted. 

On  the  Sabbath,  the  services  took  on  a  still  more  impressive 
character.  A  much  larger  multitude  might  be  expected  for  the  sacred 
assembly.  Lev.  23,  3,  and  the  ceremony  of  the  weekly  renewal  of  the 
show-bread  had  to  be  performed.  On  this  day,  also,  two  lambs  were 
offered  in  addition  to  the  usual  sacrifices.  Num.  28,  9.  10. 

The  daily  sacrifices  in  the  temple,  the  only  place  where  the  of- 
fering of  sacrifices  was  permitted,  were  of  various  kinds.  Edersheim 
makes  the  following  classification.  He  distinguishes  between  sacri- 
fices in  communion  with  God,  which  include  burnt  and  peace  offer- 
ings, and  offerings  for  communion  with  God,  which  come  under  the 
heading  of  sin  and  trespass  offerings.  He  names  the  unbloody  sacri- 
fices, the  meat  and  drink  offering,  the  first  sheaf  at  Passover,  the  two 
loaves  at  Pentecost,  the  show-bread.  All  others  are  included  in  the 
category  of  bloody  offerings:  oxen,  sheep,  goats,  turtle-doves,  and 
young  pigeons.  He  finally  characterizes  as  holy  offerings  certain 
meat  offerings,  all  burnt,  sin,  and  trespass  sacrifices.^oi) 

The  burnt  offering  (Lev.  1,  3—17;  6,  8—11;  7,  8;  9,  7;  Num.  15, 
1—12;  28,  2—13.  19—31;  Ex.  29,  38—42)  was  the  regular  morning 
and  evening  sacrifice  in  the  temple,  made  in  the  name  of  and  for  the 
entire  congregation.  It  was  also  made  by  individuals,  and  in  either 
case  symbolized  the  entire  surrender  of  the  one  who  brought  the  of- 
fering, "with  shedding  of  blood."  The  offering  had  to  be  a  male 
without  blemish,  either  a  bullock  from  the  cattle,  or  a  sheep  or  goat 
from  the  herd,  or  turtle-doves  or  young  pigeons  of  the  fowls.  The 
animal  had  to  be  led  to  the  door  of  the  tabernacle,  later  to  the  Holy 
Place.  There  the  petitioner  put  his  hand  on  the  head  of  the  offering 
to  signify  the  transfer  of  sin  and  guilt.  It  was  then  accepted  by  the 
officiating  priest  and  killed  as  an  atonement.  The  blood  was  either 
sprinkled  or  poured  out  against  the  side  of  the  altar.  After  the  re- 
moval of  the  skin,  the  animal  was  divided  according  to  the  prescribed 
rules.  The  sinews  of  the  thigh,  the  stomach,  the  entrails,  etc.,  were 
removed.  And  then  the  pieces  were  burned,  after  they  had  been 
duly  salted. 

This  bloody  sacrifice  had  to  be  accompanied  by  the  unbloody 
sacrifice  of  a  minchah.  Lev.  2,  fine  flour,  upon  which  oil  was  poured, 
and  frankincense  added.  After  the  priest  had  taken  out  his  handful 
of  the  offering,  the  flour  was  burned  as  a  sweet  savor  to  the  Lord. 


201)  The  Temple,  Chapter  V. 


THE  OLD  TESTAMENT  CULTUS.  235 

The  same  kind  of  unbloody  sacrifice  was  made  at  the  time  of  all  free- 
will offerings,  except  the  praise-oflfering,  and  when  vows  were  dedi- 
cated to  the  Lord.  But  the  amount  of  flour,  oil,  and  incense  varied 
with  the  importance  of  the  occasion  and  the  size  of  the  animal  Tinder 
consideration. 

The  sin-offering  (Lev.  4,  1—35;  6,  12—30;  Num.  5,  22—31)  was 
made  for  sins  committed  through  ignorance,  including  transgressions 
for  want  of  knowledge,  or  unintentional,  or  out  of  'weakness,  or  with- 
out realization  of  guilt.  It  was  also  offered  in  case  of  defilements 
of  the  body  which  are  the  result  of  the  sinful  condition  of  man. 
A  priest  was  commanded  to  offer  a  young  bullock,  as  also  the  whole 
congregation,  a  ruler  brought  a  kid  of  the  goats,  a  male  without 
blemish,  while  the  individual  member  of  the  congregation  was  or- 
dered to  bring  a  kid  of  the  goats  or  a  lamb,  a  female  without  blemish, 
two  turtle-doves  or  two  young  pigeons.  It  was  a  sin-offering  which  was 
made  by  the  high  priest  on  the  yearly  Day  of  Atonement.  The  sac- 
rifice had  to  be  brought  and  killed  in  the  same  way  as  that  of  a  burnt 
offering,  but  the  emphasis  was  placed  upon  the  method  of  dealing 
with  the  blood.  If  the  offering  was  for  a  priest  or  for  the  whole  con- 
gregation, the  blood  was  sprinkled  seven  times  before  the  Ix»rd,  be- 
fore the  veil  of  the  sanctuary.  Of  the  remainder,  some  was  put  upon 
the  horns  of  the  altar  and  the  rest  poured  at  the  bottom  of  the  altar 
of  burnt  offering.  WTien  the  offender  was  a  ruler  or  a  layman,  only 
the  last-named  rites  were  performed.  In  every  case,  the  sin-offering 
was  made  for  the  purpose  of  an  atonement  for  the  sins  which  had 
been  committed,  that  they  might  be  forgiven.  After  the  sprinkling 
of  blood,  all  the  fat  in  the  abdomen,  both  connective  tissue  and  fatty 
covering,  the  two  kidneys,  and  the  caul  of  the  liver  were  burned  upon 
the  altar  of  burnt  offering.  The  other  parts  of  the  animal  were  taken 
to  a  designated  place  outside  of  the  camp  or  city  and  burned  (Lev. 
4,  11.  12.  21;  6,  30;  6,  27).  There  was  no  unbloody  sacrifice  connected 
with  the  sin-offering  (Heb.  9,  22). 

The  trespass- offering  (Lev.  6,  1 — 7;  7,  1 — 7;  5,  16.  18)  was  akin 
to  the  sin-offering,  but  implied  greater  guilt,  since  the  offender  was 
conscious  of  his  transgression  and  committed  the  wrong  in  spite  of 
better  knowledge.  This  sacrifice  was  always  a  male  animal,  generally 
a  ram  without  blemish,  out  of  the  flock.  It  is  probable  that  the  entire 
chapter  Lev.  5  concerns  an  offering  of  this  kind,  and  that  the  degree 
of  the  transgression  was  determined  by  the  priests,  who  thus  con- 
trolled the  sin-  and  trespass-offerings.  In  some  cases  it  may  have 
been  difficult  to  establish,  with  reasonable  exactness,  whether  there 
was  a  doubtful  or  a  certain  trespass,  and  the  confession  of  guilt  was 
taken  as  evidence  (Lev.  5,  15;  6,  2;  19,  20;  14,  12;  Num.  6,  12).  The 
treatment  of  the  sacrifice  in  the  first  part  of  the  rite  was  like  that  of 


236  THE  OLD  TESTAMENT  CULTUS. 

the  other  offerings,  but  the  flesh  was  not  burned,  since  the  Lord  had 
commanded  the  priests  to  eat  it  in  the  Holy  Place. 

The  peace-offerings  (Lev.  3;  7,  11—21.  29—34;  22,  21—33)  were 
of  three  kinds,  and  all  of  them  symbolized  a  happy  fellowship  with 
the  covenant  God,  and  had  the  purpose  of  establishing  the  proper 
relation,  that  of  sons  and  daughters,  toward  a  loving  Father,  between 
the  people  and  the  Lord.  The  offering  might  be  either  male  or  fe- 
male, a  lamb  or  a  goat.  This  bloody  offering  was  made  in  the  same 
way  as  the  sin-offering  and  the  flesh  eaten  the  same  day  it  was  of- 
fered. The  sacrifices  of  thanksgiving  (Lev.  7,  11 — 15;  Ps.  107,  22; 
116,  17)  were  made  in  praise  of  the  goodness  of  the  Lord  (Lev.  9, 
18—21 ;  Deut.  27,  7;  Josh.  8,  31 ;  1  Sam.  24,  5).  These  sacrifices  were 
accompanied  by  a  minchali  of  luileavened  cakes  mingled  with  oil, 
and  unleavened  wafers  anointed  with  oil,  and  cakes  mingled  with  oil, 
of  fine  flour,  fried  (Lev.  2,  4—9;  1  Chron.  23,  29).  The  sacrifices  of 
vows  were  made  whenever  a  person  had  vowed  to  give  the  Lord  a 
special  gift  or  service  and  the  supplication  had  been  granted  (Gen. 
28,  20;  Num.  21,  2;  Judg.  11,  30;  1  Sam.  1,  11;  2  Sam.  15,  7.  8).  The 
purpose  of  the  sacrifice  therefore  was  to  render  praise  and  thanks  to 
the  Lord  for  His  goodness  (Num  6,  1—21;  1  Sam.  1,  21.  24;  Ps.  22, 
26;  56,  13).  The  sacrifice  of  voluntary  offerings  (Lev.  7,  11.  12.  16; 
22,  18.  23),  as  its  name  implies,  was  made  without  any  special  direct 
provocation  or  reason,  whenever  the  devotion  of  the  Israelite  felt  the 
desire  to  enter  into  a  closer  and  more  harmonious  relation  with  the 
Lord  (Judg.  20,  26;  21,  4;  1  Sam.  13,  9). 

The  offerings  here  named  were  the  usual  offerings,  which  con- 
cerned the  entire  i)eople  in  their  every-day  relation  toward  God. 
There  were  many  other  sacrifices  for  special  classes  of  people  and 
special  occasions  of  various  kinds,  all  of  which  were  governed  by  in- 
dividual ordinances.2^2)  We  shall  discuss  the  rites  and  sacrifices  of 
the  great  Jewish  festivals  in  a  special  chapter  below. 

The  temple  services  were  practically  the  only  public  services -for 
many  centuries.  But  after  the  Jews  returned  from  their  exile,  syna- 
gogs  were  gradually  introduced  into  the  cities  of  Palestine  to  supple- 
ment private  worship  in  the  homes.  The  members  of  a  local  congre- 
gation would  convene  in  the  synagog  on  the  Sabbath  to  recite  certain 
prayers,  also  by  means  of  responsive  reading,  to  hear  portions  of  the 
Old  Testament  Scriptures,  and  to  listen  to  a  discourse  upon  the  Law 
by  one  or  more  of  their  rabbis  or  elders.  Public  worship  in  the  syna- 
gog was  opened  with  the  Shema  (Deut.  6,  4 — 9;  9,  13 — 21;  Num.  15, 
37 — 41).    It  was  preceded  in  the  morning  and  evening  by  two  bene- 


202)  Cp.  Edersheim,  The  Temple,  Chap.  V,  VI,  VIII;  Baehr,  SymboUk 
des  mosaischen  Kultus,  II,  189 — 453;  Kliefoth,  Die  ursprnengliche  Gottes- 
(lirnatnrfhninfi,  I,  28—122. 


THE  OLD  TESTAMENT  CULTTJS.  237 

dictions,  and  succeeded  in  the  morning  by  one,  and  in  the  evening 
by  two  benedictions.  The  prayers  before  and  after  the  Shema  are 
contained  in  the  Mishnah,  and  have  remained  practically  unchanged 
to  the  present  day.  Then  followed  the  prayers  before  the  "ark"  or 
scroll-chest  at  the  end  of  the  auditorium.  They  consisted  of  eighteen 
eulogies  or  benedictions,  called  Tephillah.  The  first  three  and  the 
last  three  of  these  eulogies  are  very  ancient  and  may  well  be  said  to 
have  been  in  use  in  the  time  of  the  Lord.  The  prayers  were  spoken 
aloud  by  one  man  selected  for  the  occasion,  and  the  congregation 
responded  with  Amen.  The  liturgical  part  of  the  service  was  con- 
cluded with  the  Aaronic  benediction,  spoken  by  the  descendants  of 
Aaron,  or  by  the  leader  of  the  devotions.  After  this  followed  the 
reading  of  the  Law.  Seven  persons  were  called  upon  to  read,  and  the 
lectionaries  were  arranged  so  that  the  Pentateuch  would  be  read 
twice  in  seven  years.  On  week-days,  Mondays  and  Thursdays,  only 
three  persons  were  called  upon  to  read  the  Law.  After  the  Law  came 
the  reading  of  the  Prophets.  At  the  time  of  Christ,  all  the  reading 
was  accompanied  by  a  translation  into  Aramaic  by  a  meturgeman  or 
interpreter. 

After  the  reading  of  the  Prophets  came  the  sermon  or  address. 
When  a  very  learned  rabbi  gave  a  theological  discussion,  it  was  not 
spoken  to  the  people  directly,  but  a  speaker  gave  a  popular  transcrip- 
tion of  the  discussion  transmitted  to  him.  The  more  popular  sermon 
of  the  local  elder  or  rabbi  was  termed  a  meamar,  a  speech  or  talk, 
based,  as  a  rule,  upon  a  Scripture  passage  (Luke  4,  17).  After  the 
sermon,  the  services  were  closed.  In  the  first  centuries  of  the  Chris- 
tian era,  some  additions  to  th^  liturgical  parts  of  the  services  were 
made,  notably  by  the  reading  or  chanting  of  Psalms  and  by  choir 
music.203)  The  order  of  services  here  given  is  also  that  described  by 
Gwynne,  who  summarizes  as  follows:  1)  Two  prayers,  2)  Shema 
(Deut.  6,  4—9;  11,  13—21;  Num.  15,  37—41),  3)  Prayer,  4)  Eulogies 
and  Benedictions  (Lifting  up  of  hands  and  Num.  6,  23 — 26),  5)  Last 
Eulogy,  6)  Heading  of  Law  and  Prophets,  7)  Sermon,  8)  Short 
Prayer.2<>^)  This  order  is  also  given  by  Mercer,206)  who  adds  as  a 
summary  of  the  temple  service  1)  The  daily  offering  of  a  sacrifice 
with  meal  and  wine,  2)  Daily  offering  of  incense,  3)  Special  Psalms, 
4)  Special  services  on  feast  days. 

Opinions  differ  as  to  the  amount  of  influence  which  must  be 
conceded  to  the  Jewish  liturgy  in  the  development  of  the  Christian 
order  of  worship.     Many  writers,    especially  those  of  the  Anglican 


203)  Cp.  Edersheim,  In  the  Days  of  Christ,  Chapter  XVII;  Dembitz, 
Jewish  Services  in  Synagog  and  Home,  Book  II,  Chapter  I. 

204)  Primitive  Worship  and  the  Prayer  Book,  Chapter  U. 

205)  The  Ethiopia  Liturgy,  29. 


238  THE  I/ITURGY  OF  THE  EARLY  CHRISTIAN   CHURCH. 

Church,  would  base  the  Missa  catechumenorum  directly  upon  the 
sj-nagog  service,  and  the  Missa  fidelium  directly  upon  the  temple 
service.  It  seems  safer,  with  CabroPoe)  and  Kliefoth^o?)  to  assume 
influence  from  both,  but  in  such  a  way  that  the  probability  of  copy- 
ing is  precluded  at  the  very  outset.  A  careful  examination  of  the 
early  liturgies  will  show  that  the  injunctions  contained  in  the  writ- 
ings of  the  apostles  exercised  a  greater  influence  in  the  molding  of 
the  primitive  liturgies  than  any  other  factor.  Whether  the  selection 
of  an  order  of  worship  which  reminds  one  strongly  of  that  of  the 
synagog  was  intentional  or  not,  will  always  remain  a  mooted  ques- 
tion. And  as  for  the  supposition  as  though  the  Eucharistic  service 
were  based  upon  the  temple  worship,  it  can  hardly  be  said  to  have 
gained  credence  before  the  third  century,  when  the  more  elaborate 
priestlj'  garments  were  generally  introduced  and  the  hierarchical 
distinctions  were  being  urged  as  existing  by  divine  right.  The  his- 
tory of  the  primitive  liturgies  substantiates  this  most  abundantly,  if 
one  will  but  strip  them  of  the  excrescences  and  accretions,  and  at- 
tempt to  establish  the  liturgy  as  it  existed  in  the  time  of  the  apostles 
and  their  disciples. 


CHAPTER  2. 
The  Liturgy  of  the  Early  Christian  Church. 

When  our  Lord  instituted  the  Lord's  Supper  in  the  upper  room 
of  the  house  at  Jerusalem  where  He  ate  the  Passover  lamb  with  His 
disciples  (Mark  14,  15;  Luke  22,  12),  He  undoubtedly  followed  the 
order  which  was  observed  by  all  Jews  upon  this  solemn  occasion,  with 
the  recital  of  the  Hallel  Psalms  in  the  intervals  (Ps.  113 — 118).  But 
His  command:  "This  do,"  referred  to  the  Eucharist  only  and  to  the 
celebration  according  to  His  institution.  He  fixed  no  form  of  cere- 
monial outside  of  the  words  of  institution.  Even  the  giving  of  thanks 
over  the  elements  was  not  made  obligatory  by  His  order  and  institu- 
tion. In  much  the  same  way,  Christ  permitted  a  very  wide  latitude 
in  other  services.  He  commanded  that  preaching  should  be  done, 
but  fixed  neither  the  day,  nor  the  place,  nor  the  hour,  nor  the  form. 
He  commanded  that  all  nations  should  be  discipled  by  Baptism,  but 
left  only  the  form :  "In  the  name  of  the  Father,  and  of  the  Son,  and 
of  the  Holy  Ghost." 

This  does  not  imply,  of  course,  that  the  elements  of  Christian 
worship  were  a  matter  of  entire  indifference  to  Him.  In  His  various 
discourses.  He  named  a  number  of  parts  or  elements  of  worship  which 


206)  Monumenta  ecclesiae  Uturgica,  1,  xix. 

207)  Die  urspruengliche  Gottesdienstordnung,  I,  174.  175. 


THE  LITUBQY  OF  THE  EARLY  CHRISTIAN   CHURCH.  239 

were  well-pleasing  to  Him:  1)  Assembly  in  His  name,  Matt.  18,  20; 
2)  Prayer  in  His  name,  John  16,  23.  24;  3)  Common  prayer.  Matt. 
18,  19;  4)  A  form  of  prayer.  Matt.  6,  9—13;  6)  The  Holy  Supper  was 
instituted  and  its  observance  commanded,  Matt.  26;  6)  The  office 
of  the  ministry  of  teaching  the  Gospel  and  administering  the  Sacra- 
ments was  established,  Matt.  28,  18;  18,  18;  Luke  24,  47.  48;  John 
15,  27;  20,  21—23;  7)  The  use  of  the  Holy  Scriptures  was  enjoined, 
John  5,  39;  8,  31;  Luke  16,  31;  Matt.  4,  4—10.208)  In  no  way  did  the 
Lord  reestablish  the  ceremonial  law  of  the  Old  Testament  nor  burden 
the  believers  with  new  injunctions  concerning  sacrifices,  feast  days, 
forms  of  worship,  or  any  liturgy.  He  expresses  this  very  plainly  in 
His  conversation  with  the  Samaritan  woman,  when  He  makes  the 
statement:  ''The  hour  cometh,  when  ye  shall  neither  in  this  moim- 
tain,  nor  yet  at  Jerusalem,  worship  the  Father.  .  .  The  hour  cometh, 
and  now  is,  when  the  true  worshipers  shall  worship  the  Father  in 
spirit  and  in  truth,"  John  4,  21.  23.  The  apostles  followed  in  the 
footsteps  of  their  great  Master  and  did  not  attempt  to  put  a  yoke 
upon  the  neck  of  the  disciples.  St.  Paul  calls  the  regulations  of  the 
ceremonial  law  "weak  and  beggarly  elements,  whereunto  ye  desire 
again  to  be  in  bondage,"  Gal.  4,  9.  He  declares  that  the  believers  of 
the  New  Testament  are  no  longer  subject  to  ordinances  concerning 
outward  forms  of  liturgy.  Col.  3,  16 — 20. 

And  yet,  neither  St.  Paul  nor  any  other  disciple  was  in  favor  of 
a  disorderly  worship,  still  less  did  they  favor  iconoclastic  proceedings 
which  were  not  preceded  by  careful  instruction.  Acts  15  and  16; 
1  Cor.  10 — 14.  He  states  the  position  of  the  New  Testament  church 
very  clearly,  when  he  says :  "Let  all  things  be  done  unto  edifying. . . 
God  is  not  the  author  of  confusion,  but  of  peace.  .  .  Let-all  things  be 
done  decently  and  in  order,"  1  Cor.  14,  26.  33.  40.  It  was  in  accord- 
ance with  this  principle  that  the  apostles  had  the  congregations  es- 
tablish orders  of  worship,  and  it  is  very  probable  that  they  themselves 
introduced  liturgies,  at  least  in  some  of  the  cities  where  they  labored. 
There  are  certain  indications  of  this  even  in  the  writings  of  the  New 
Testament.  We  are  told  that  the  first  Christians  in  Jerusalem  "con- 
tinued steadfastly  in  the  apostles'  doctrine  and  fellowship,  and  in 
breaking  of  bread,  and  in  prayers,"  Acts  2,  42.  Their  preaching 
services  in  the  early  days  were  held  in  the  temple.  Acts  5,  12,  but  the 
celebration  of  the  Eucharist  took  place  in  the  midst  of  the  house 
congregations,  v.  46.  There  is  no  need  for  assuming,  upon  the  asser- 
tion of  some  liberal  critics,  that  the  "breaking  of  bread"  (klasis  tou 
artou)  might  not  have  been  the  Holy  Supper.^os)     Scholars  like  Klie- 


208)  Horn,  Outlines  of  Liturgies,  91.  92. 

209)  Cp.  Memoirs,  VI;  4. 


240  THE  LITURGY  OF  THE  EARLY  CHRISTIAN  CHURCH. 

foth,  Graebner,  and  recently  Gvvynne  have  shown  conclusively  that 
the  ancient  interpretation  is  perfectly  safe  (Of.  Acts  20,  7.  11;  1  Cor. 
10,  16).  The  hours  of  prayer  were  observed  at  least  by  the  Jewish 
Christians,  Acts  3,  1;  10,  3.  9.  30;  16,  25;  22,  17.  St.  Paul  speaks  of 
psalms,  and  hymns,  and  spiritual  songs  in  a  perfectly  matter-of-fact 
way,  indicating  that  they  were  well-known  to  the  disciples  at  his 
time,  Eph.  5,  19;  Col.  3,  16.  It  was  not  long  before  certain  rules 
were  drawn  up  for  the  celebration  of  the  Holy  Supper,  1  Cor.  11 — 14. 
The  reading  of  the  apostles'  letters  was  introduced  as  a  regular  part 
of  the  liturgy,  1  Thess.  5,  27;  Col.  4,  16;  2  Pet.  3,  15.  16.  The  "kiss 
of  peace,"  which  is  mentioned  several  times  in  the  New  Testament, 
1  Thess.  5,  26;  1  Cor.  16,  20;  2  Cor.  13,  12;  1  Pet.  5,  14,  was  also 
made  a  part  of  the  liturgical  service.  The  practise  of  bringing  gifts 
for  the  poor,  1  Cor.  16,  1.  2;  2  Cor.  8  and  9,  became  an  established 
custom.  Even  in  the  time  of  Paul,  the  "oblation  of  gifts,"  of  bread 
and  wine,  was  in  existence,  since  he  is  called  upon  to  regulate  the 
custom  and  the  feast  connected  with  it,  1  Cor.  11,  20.  21.2io) 

Nor  is  this  all.  There  is  plain  evidence  in  Scriptures  that  litur- 
gical forms  were  by  no  means  imknown,  and  the  fact  that  many  of 
the  quotations  of  this  nature  cannot  be  traced  to  Old  Testament 
sources  or  synagog  prayers  makes  it  all  the  more  likely  that  fixed 
prayers,  doxologies,  eulogies,  etc.,  were  incorporated  into  the  liturgy 
at  a  very  early  date.  Some  of  the  most  notable  instances  of  liturgical 
quotations  are  the  following:  1  Cor.  15,  46.  55 — 57;  Eph.  5,  14;  1 
Tim.  1,  15;  3,  1;  4,  8.  9;  2  Tim.  2,  11—13.  19;  Titus  3,  5—8.211)  The 
most  complete  list  of  such  quotations  is  that  given  by  Cabrol.2i2) 
The  most  interesting  passage  of  this  group  is  1  Cor.  2,  9,  of  which 
Lightfoot  and  Neale  have  thought  that  it  certainly  was  of  apostolic 
origin,  since  the  reference  Is.  64,  3  is  evidently  not  a  source,  and  the 
words  in  the  Invocation  of  the  Anaphora  in  the  Post-Sanctus  of 
St.  James  agree  with  the  pfissage  exactly.2i3)  Most  of  the  modern 
scholars  reject  the  idea,  though  some  of  them  are  willing  to  concede 
that  the  nucleus  of  some  of  the  later  prayers  may  have  been  of  apos- 
tolic origin.214) 

If  we  take  all  facts  together,  as  we  find  them  in  the  New  Testa- 
ment writings,  we  are  enabled  to  form  a  picture  of  the  services  in 
the  time  of  the  apostles.     They  included  in  their  order  reading  of 


210)  Mercer,  The  Ethiopio  Liturgy,  39;  Kliefoth,  Die  urspruengliche 
Gottesdienstordnung,  I,  236.  237. 

211)  Neale,  Essays  on  Liturgiology,  XV.     Cp.  Srawley,  The  Early 
History  of  the  Liturgy,  Chapter  I. 

212)  Monumenta  ecclesiae  liturgica,  Vol.  I. 

213)  Ante-Nicene  Christian  Library,  XXIV,  30;  Brightman,  Liturgies, 
Eastern  and  Western,  I,  53. 

214)  Cp.  International  Critical  Commentary,  sub  voce. 


THE  LITURGY  OF  THE  EARLY  CHRISTIAN  CHURCH.  241 

Scriptures  (at  first  of  Old  Testament,  later  of  apostles'  letters), 
preaching,  prayer,  singing,  Lord's  Supper,2i5)  or,  as  Kliefoth  puts  it, 
after  his  long  discussion  of  the  various  features  of  apostolic  worship : 
"There  was  preaching,  prayer  (also  in  the  form  of  hymns),  and  gifts 
were  offered  and  communion  celebrated  in  connection  with  a  common 
meal."  216)  It  is  possible,  of  course,  and  may  perhaps  be  said  to  be 
probable,  that  the  services  were  even  at  that  time  elaborately  arranged, 
but  in  the  absence  of  documentary  evidence  it  is  better  to  assume 
too  little  than  too  much. 

Toward  the  end  of  the  first  century,  when  most  of  the  apostles 
had  died  or  been  martyred,  their  work  was  carried  on  by  their  dis- 
ciples and  then  by  the  so-called  apostolic  fathers.  It  was  at  this  time 
that  the  liturgy  began  to  assume  the  form  into  which  it  was  definitely 
molded  after  the  beginning  of  the  fourth  century.  Recent  writers  on 
the  liturgy,  following  the  example  of  Harnack,  have  greatly  stressed 
the  distinction  between  the  order  of  worship  in  the  Jewish-Christian 
congregations  and  those  composed  largely  of  Gentile  Christians.  The 
emphasis  has  probably  been  too  great.  There  can  be  no  doubt,  of 
course,  that  the  converted  Jews,  especially  in  Jerusalem,  continued 
to  observe  such  Jewish  customs  as  did  not  clash  with  the  freedom  of 
the  Gospel.  But  the  sequence  of  events  in  the  Book  of  Acts,  cul- 
minating in  the  attack  of  the  fanatical  Jews  upon  Paul  (Acts  21 — 
24)  shows  conclusively  that  the  difference  between  the  old  and  the 
new  church  became  more  apparent  as  time  went  on.  The  efforts  of 
Judaizing  teachers  were  opposed  with  the  greatest  firmness  by  Paul 
and  the  congregations  at  Jerusalem  and  Antioch,  both  of  which  were 
incidentally  bi-lingual.  It  is  probable  that  only  the  small  remnant 
of  the  Jerusalem  congr^ation  that  fled  to  Pell  a  before  the  destruc- 
tion of  the  capital  city  retained  the  Jewish  characteristics,  all  the 
others  yielding  to  Hellenistic  influence  almost  from  the  start.  There 
is  every  reason  to  believe  that  the  following  order  of  service  was 
general  in  the  last  half  of  the  first  century.  There  were  daily  ser- 
vices with  teaching  of  the  Word  and  prayer,  in  which  all  such  as 
wished  to  become  acquainted  with  the  Christian  doctrine  were  made 
welcome.  And  there  were  special  services  for  the  celebration  of  the 
Eucharist,  usually  on  Sunday  evenings,  with  preaching  of  the  Word, 
offering  of  prayer,  oblation  of  gifts,  common  meal,  and  the  Holy 
Supper,  in  which  the  whole  congregation  took  part,  none  but  mem- 
bers being  admitted,  1  Cor.  16,  1.  2;  Acts  20,  17;  Rev.  1,  10.217) 
Jacobs 218)   gives    the  order  as  follows:    1)    Psalm;    2)    Teaching; 


215)  Richards-Painter,  Christian  Worship,  Chapter  I;  Memoirs,  VI:  4. 

216)  Op.  cit..  I.  237.  217)  Kliefoth,  I,  250. 
218)  Memoirs,  VI:  4. 

Kretzmann,  Christian  Art  16 


242  THE  LITUBGY  OF  THE  EARLY  CHEISTIAN  CHURCH. 

3)  Prophecy;  4)  Tongues  and  their  Interpretation;  —  meeting  of 
Lord's  Supper:  common  meal  or  agape,  followed  by  Eucharist. 

There  is  svifficient  evidence  from  the  end  of  the  first  and  the 
larger  part  of  the  second  century  to  afford  a  very  good  picture  of  the 
form  of  worship  at  that  time.  The  earliest  testimony  is  that  of 
Clemens  Romanus  in  his  First  Epistle  to  the  Corinthians,  which 
probably  dates  from  the  year  96  A.  D.  He  writes :  "We  ought  to  do 
in  order  all  things  which  the  Master  commanded  us  to  perform  at 
appointed  times.  He  commanded  us  to  celebrate  sacrifices  and  ser- 
vices, and  that  it  should  not  be  thoughtlessly  and  disorderly,  but  at 
fixed  times  and  hours.  ...  So  then  those  who  offer  their  oblations  at 
the  appointed  seasons  are  acceptable  and  blessed,  for  they  follow  the 
laws  of  the  Master  and  do  not  sin.  For  to  the  High  Priest  his  proper 
ministrations  are  allotted,  and  to  the  priests  the  proper  place  has 
been  appointed,  and  on  the  Levites  their  proper  services  have  been 
imposed.  The  layman  is  bound  by  the  ordinances  for  the  laity."  2i9) 
While  Clement  here  does  not  state  the  order  of  worship,  he  plainly 
indicates  that  such  an  order  was  in  general  use,  and  that  every  mem- 
ber of  the  congregation  should  submit  to  this  order.  In  the  course 
of  the  same  Epistle,  Clement  has  many  other  passages  which  bear  a 
pronounced  liturgical  mark.  His  prayers,  especially,  bear  evidence 
of  a  fixed  rite,  and  have  been  thought  by  many  scholars  to  be  sections 
from  the  liturgy  of  Pome  at  the  end  of  the  first  century  (Chap.  LIX 
— LXI).  The  argument  of  Clement,  briefly  stated,  is  this:  The 
whole  congregation,  being  a  congregation  of  priests,  brings  the  sac- 
rifice of  prayers  and  gifts  through  its  High  Priest,  Christ.  For  this 
purpose  she  is  in  need  of  a  ministry,  a  leitourgia.  And  this  ministry 
is  fitly  in  the  hands  of  the  presbyters  and  deacons,  according  to  the 
apostolic  example.  The  presbyter  led  in  prayer,  but  the  congregation 
prayed  with  him;  the  congregation  offered  gifts,  and  the  presbyter 
spoke  prayers  of  thanksgiving  over  them,  thus  recommending  them 
to  the  blessing  of  the  Lord.220) 

The  next  witness  for  the  form  of  service  in  sub-apostolic  times 
is  one  to  whose  testimony  a  peculiar  interest  attaches,  since  he  re- 
ports entirely  from  the  standpoint  of  the  outsider.  It  is  Gains  Pli- 
nius  Caecilius  Secundus,  commonly  called  Pliny  the  Younger,  who, 
in  his  capacity  as  procurator  of  the  province  of  Bithynia-Pontus, 
found  it  necessary  to  address  some  letters  concerning  the  Christians 
to  the  Emperor  Trajan,  which,  together  with  the  answers,  have  been 
preserved.  It  appears  from  these  letters,  whose  date  may  safely  be 
put  at  ca.  103  instead  of  112,  as  commonly  given,  that  the  Christians 


219)  Lake,  The  Apostolic  Fathers,  I,  76.  78,  Chapter  XL, 

220)  Kliefoth,  I,  271—273. 


THE  LITURGY  OF  THE  EARLY  CHRISTIAN   CHURCH.  243 

had  the  habit  of  meeting  on  a  certain  day  before  sunrise,  to  sing  a 
hymn  to  Christ  as  God,  antiphonally  or  by  some  form  of  alternation; 
that  they  met  again  later  in  the  day  for  a  common  meal  (quod  essent 
soliti  state  die  ante  lucem  convenire  carmenque  Christo  quasi  deo 
dicere  secum  invicem.  .  .  quibus  peractis  morem  sibi  discedendi  fuisse, 
rursusque  ad  capiendum  cibum,  promiscuum  tamen  et  innoxium.221) 
An  added  remark  seems  to  indicate,  as  Kliefoth  shows,  that  the 
Christians  were  ready,  at  that  time,  to  drop  the  agape  as  a  feature 
of  the  celebration  of  the  Eucharist.222)  It  seems,  according  to  this 
testimony,  that  the  daily  meetings  of  the  congregations  for  the  pur- 
pose of  instruction  in  the  Scriptures  had  been  discontinued.  The 
early  service  on  Sunday  morning  was  evidently  a  song  and  praise 
service,  perhaps  with  the  recital  of  the  Ten  Commandments  or  of 
some  form  of  creed  or  discipline.  The  evening  service  was  devoted 
to  the  Lord's  Supper  preceded  by  the  agape,  which  was  falling  into 
desuetude  at  about  that  time,  and  probably  by  a  sermon  or  some 
form  of  teaching. 

The  discovery  of  the  Didache  or  Teaching  of  the  Twelve  Apostles 
by  Byrenuios  in  1875,  in  the  Patriarchal  Library  of  Jerusalem  at 
Constantinople,  added  another  witness  to  the  post-apostolic  writings. 
According  to  recent  investigators,  its  date  may  safely  be  placed  be- 
tween 120  and  160  A.  D.  This  interesting  document  is  devoted 
largely  to  the  history  of  the  polity  and  worship  of  the  Church  at  the 
beginning  of  the  second  century.  It  designates  Wednesday  and 
Friday  as  days  of  fasting,  and  recommends  that  the  Lord's  Prayer 
be  said  three  times  a  day  (Chap.  VIII).  It  names  the  prayers  over 
the  cup  and  the  bread  in  the  Eucharist,  the  prayer  in  chapter  X  being 
in  the  nature  of  a  Preface,  ending  with  "Hosanna  to  the  Lord  of 
David."  In  chapter  XIV,  the  Simday  worship  is  briefly  described: 
"On  the  Lord's  day  of  the  Lord  come  together,  break  bread,  and  hold 
the  Eucharist,  after  confessing  your  transgressions,  that  your  offer- 
ing may  be  pure;  but  let  none  who  has  a  quarrel  with  his  fellow  join 
in  your  meeting  until  they  be  reconciled,  that  your  sacrifice  be  not 
defiled."  And  in  chapter  XV  a  final  admonition  for  the  liturgy  is 
given :  "But  your  prayers  and  alms  and  all  your  acts  perform  as  ye 
find  in  the  Gospel  of  our  Lord."  223)  In  this  accoimt  special  note 
should  be  taken  of  the  thanksgiving  over  the  cup:  "We  give  thanks 
to  thee,  our  Father,  for  the  Holy  Vine  of  David  thy  child,  which 
thou  didst  make  known  to  us  through  Jesus  thy  Child,"  since  this 
may  be  a  Christianized  form  of  the  Jewish  benediction  over  the  wine : 
"Blessed  be  thou  who  hast  created  the  fruit  of  the  vine,"  as  Mercer 


221)  EpiatuUrum,  Ed.  Lipsiae  1886,  XCVI,  231. 

222)  I,  278.  279.  223)  Lake,  TTie  Apostolic  Fathers,  321—331. 


244  THE  LITURGY  OF  THE  EARLY  CHRISTIAN  CHURCH. 

suggests.224  Whether  the  other  prayers  were  also  derived  from,  or  in 
any  way  dependent  upon,  the  Jewish  ritual,  is  not  so  evident.  The 
following  liturgical  elements  were  known  to  the  compiler  of  the  Di- 
dache:  the  prayers  over  the  bread  and  cup,  and  the  thanksgiving 
after  the  reception,  which  is  more  in  the  nature  of  the  present  pre- 
faces. "There  is  evidence  also  that  the  author  was  acquainted  with 
the  custom  of  allowing  only  the  baptized  to  communicate,  and  with 
the  use  of  the  liturgical  Amen.  The  direction  concerning  the 
prophets,  who  are  to  'give  thanks  as  much  as  they  will,'  throws  an 
interesting  light  upon  the  nature  of  prayer-forms,  all  of  which  had 
not  yet  become  stereotyped,  but  were  often  extemporaneous."  225) 

In  the  epistles  of  Ignatius  of  Antioch,  which  may  be  said  to  date 
from  the  time  of  Trajan,  there  are  only  a  few  references  to  the  liturgy, 
since  he  seems  to  have  been  interested  far  more  in  church  government 
than  in  forms  of  service.  However,  he  emphasizes  the  conception  of 
the  Eucharist  as  the  common  feast  (Philadelphians,  Chap.  TV)  and 
speaks  of  the  need  of  receiving  it  and  of  making  use  of  prayer  (Smyr- 
naeans.  Chap.  YII).226) 

Far  more  satisfactory  for  our  purposes  is  the  report  of  Justin 
Martyr,  about  the  middle  of  the  second  century,  in  his  First  Apology, 
addressed  to  Antoninus  Pius.  He  not  only  gives  an  account  of  Bap- 
tism (Chap.  61),  but  also  describes  the  services  of  the  Christians  at 
great  length  (Chap.  65 — 67) .227)  Justin's  object  was  to  obviate  the 
suspicion  of  secrecy  and  the  charge  of  unlawful  practises.  So  he 
draws  a  parallel  between  the  initiation  into  the  pagan  mysteries  and 
the  admission  to  the  Christian  congregation,  placing  special  emphasis 
upon  the  two  Sacraments,  Baptism  and  the  Eucharist.  His  argu- 
ment is  substantially  this  that  only  such  persons  as  have  confessed 
their  faith  may  be  received  into  the  congregation  by  Baptism  and 
thereby  also  be  admitted  to  the  Holy  Supper.  It  is  in  this  connection 
that  he  describes  the  various  parts  of  the  r^ular  Sunday  service,  as 
it  existed  in  his  days.  These  parts  were:  1)  Lessons,  "memoirs  of 
the  apostles  or  writings  of  the  prophets";  2)  Sermon  by  the  bishop  or 
president;  3)  Common  Prayer  for  all  men;  4)  Kiss  of  Peace;  5)  Pre- 
sentation to  the  president  of  bread  and  a  cup  of  wine  and  water  by 
the  deacons ;  6)  Thanksgiving  Prayer  of  the  bishop ;  7)  Consecration ; 
8)  Intercession  for  the  people;  9)  Amen  by  the  people;  10)  Adminis- 
tration of  bread  and  wine  to  members  present  and  conveying  of  same 
to  those  absent  by  the  deacons     At  some  time  during  the  services 


224)  Op.  cit..  40.  225)  Mercer,  The  Ethiopic  Liturgy,  41.  42. 

226)  Apostolic  Fathers,  I,  243.  259. 

227)  St.  Louis  Ed.  1882,  71—74;  Kliefoth,  Die  urspruengliche  Gottes- 
diemtordnung,  I,  280 — 283. 


THE  LITURGY  OF  THE  EARLY  CHRISTIAN  CHURCH.  245 

there  was  also  a  collection  of  alms  for  the  poor.228)  Outside  of  the 
facts  pertaining  to  the  actual  order  of  services,  these  witnesses  pre- 
sent enough  material  to  show  1)  that  the  right  of  active  participation 
in  the  service  —  praying,  prophesying,  exhorting,  speaking  with 
tongues,  was  gradually  delegated  to  the  office-bearers;  2)  that  the 
separation  of  the  agape  or  common  meal  from  the  Eucharist  was 
carried  out  generally;  3)  that  the  former  morning  and  evening  ser- 
vices were  consolidated  into  one.229) 

There  is  one  other  witness  toward  the  end  of  the  second  century 
that  describes  the  liturgical  customs  of  his  time  with  sufficient  accu- 
racy to  permit  of  a  reconstruction  of  his  order  of  service.  This  is 
Irenaeus,  bishop  of  Lyons  in  Gaul  (d.  180  A.  D.),  in  his  book  Ad- 
versus  haereses.  His  references  show  the  following  parts:  1)  An 
offering  of  the  firstfruits  of  the  creatures,  bread  and  wine,  the  wine 
being  mixed  with  the  water;  2)  A  thanksgiving  pronounced  over 
them;  3)  An  invocation  of  God  over  the  elements,  the  so-called 
Epiklesis.230) 

There  is  one  more  document,  in  regard  to  whose  date  there  is 
much  uncertainty,  namely  the  second  book  of  the  Apostolic  Constitu- 
tions. Some  writers  assert  quite  definitely  that  this  book,  with  the 
rest  of  the  first  seven,  is  based  in  its  entirety  upon  the  Didascalia 
written  in  the  fourth  century,  with  sources  reaching  into  the  third 
century.  Others  believe  that  the  sources  extend  back  to  the  second 
century.  Since  the  order  of  services  as  given  in  the  second  book  is 
80  much  simpler  than  the  Clementine  Liturgy  from  Hippolytus  in 
the  eighth  book,  we  shall  give  an  outline  of  the  order  of  services, 
assuming  that  its  chief  parts  have  an  antiquity  taking  them  back  at 
least  to  the  end  of  the  third  or  the  beginning  of  the  fourth  century. 
The  order  was:  1)  Reading  of  Old  Testament  (Moses,  Joshua,  Judges, 
Kings,  Chronicles,  books  written  after  the  captivity,  Job,  Solomon, 
Prophets)  two  lessons,  responded  to  by  the  people  at  the  close  of  a 
Psalm  of  David,  the  congregation  joining  at  the  conclusion  of  the 
verses;  2)  Reading  of  Acts  and  Epistles  of  Paul;  3)  Reading  of  Gos- 
pels, the  people  standing;  4)  The  exhortations  or  sermons;  5)  General 
prayer;  6)  Oblation  of  the  Eucharist;  7)  Kiss  of  peace;  8)  Great  in- 
tercessory prayer;  9)  Benediction;  10)  Distribution.23i)  We  are  all 
the  more  justified  in  placing  this  order  at  this  point,  with  omission 
of  the  rubrics,  as  even  Brightman  (p.  xviii)  places  the  Didascalia  in 


228)  Cp.  Mercer,  43;     Srawley,  TTie  Early  History  of  the  Liturgy, 
Chapter  II;  Horn,  Outline  of  Liturgies,  96. 

229)  Jacobs,  Christian  Worship  in  the  Apostolic  Age,  Memoirs,  "VT:  4. 

230)  Cp.  Mercer,  Op.  cit.,  44;  Srawley,  Chapter  II. 

231)  Ante-'Sicene  Library,  XVII,  83 — 86;  Brightman,  Liturgies  Eastern 
and  Western,  I,  28—30;  Kliefoth,  I,  464—473. 


246  THE  LITURGY  OF  THE  EARLY  CHRISTIAN   CHURCH. 

the  first  half  of  the  third  century,  and  since  both  Tertullian  and 
Cyprian,  commonly  placed  ahead  of  this  document,  present  a  stage 
of  development  beyond  that  of  the  document  here  presented.  It  is  in 
Tertullian  (first  quarter  of  the  third  century)  that  we  first  find  the 
division  into  missa  catechumenorum  and  missa  fidelium.  He  speaks 
of  the  Eucharistic  service  as  a  mystery  and  has  reference  to  a  fixed 
Sanctus  in  the  Proanaphora.232)  And  Cyprian,  bishop  of  Carthage 
from  248  to  258  A.  D.,  went  even  beyond  his  master.  He  represents 
the  Eucharist  as  a  sacrifice.  The  catechumens,  the  penitents,  the 
energumens,  the  lapsi,  and  even  the  heathen  and  infidels  took  part  in 
the  missa  catechumenorum,  in  the  service  of  the  Word,  but  the 
Eucharistic  service  was  guarded  more  jealously  than  the  pagan  mys- 
teries and  surrounded  with  the  deepest  and  darkest  veil  of  secrecy. 
Cj'prian  also  placed  so  much  stress  upon  the  General  Church  Prayer 
that  he  really  acknowledges  only  this  as  having  full  value.  The  kiss 
of  peace,  which  formerly  denoted  the  end  of  the  intercessions,  was 
now  made  a  part  of  the  Eucharistic  service.  The  oblation  of  gifts 
was  also  added  to  the  communion  service,  thus  rendering  its  sacrifi- 
cial character  more  prominent.  There  are  evidences  that  miraculous 
powers  were  ascribed  to  the  consecrated  elements.^^) 

From  the  entire  discussion,  which  has  purposely  been  confimed  to 
the  form  of  a  summary,  it  is  evident  that  the  liturgy,  in  spite  of  the 
fact  that  it  was  still  fluid  and  subject  to  change  in  detail,  had,  by  the 
end  of  the  third  century,  "assmned  the  general  form  which  it  later 
had  in  all  great  liturgies,  that  is,  with  two  important  parts,  1)  a  pre- 
paratory service,  called  the  'service  of  the  Word',  and  2)  the  main 
service,  later  called  the  Anaphora;  and,  in  addition,  special  stress 
had  come  to  be  laid  upon  the  idea  of  an  invocation,  whereby  the 
change  in  the  elements  was  considered  to  be  accomplished."  234)  It 
is  even  possible,  as  Alt  has  done,  to  construct  a  composite  liturgy,  in 
order  to  have  a  fairly  correct  idea  of  the  order  of  service  at  the  end 
of  the  third  or  the  beginning  of  the  fourth  century.  The  order,  in  a 
brief  summary,  is  as  follows :  A,  Mass  of  the  Catechumens.  1)  Private 
confession  of  sins;  2)  Chanting  of  Psalms,  commonly  twelve,  b^in- 
ning  with  Psalm  63,  and  closing  with  the  Gloria  Patri;  3)  The  Les- 
sons, introduced  with  Salutation  and  Response  "Pax  vobiscum"; 
4)  The  Halleluja-Psalm,  commonly  Psalm  150;  5)  The  Gospel,  to  which 
the  congregation  responded  with  Deo  gratias  or  Laus  tibi  Christe; 
6)  The  Sermon,  introduced  with  the  Apostolic  Greeting;  7)  Dismis 
sal  of  unbelievers;  8)  Prayers  for  Catechumens,  Energumens  (ener- 
goumenoi).  Enlightened  (photizomenoi),  and  Penitents,  and  the  Dis- 


232)  Horn,  Outlines  of  Liturgies,  98.  99. 

233)  Kliefoth,  I,  423—441.        234)  Mercer,  The  Ethiopic  Liturgy,  45. 


THE  DIVERGENT  ORDERS  FROM  THE   FOURTH  CENTURY,        247 

missal  of  each  group  in  order.  B.  Mass  of  the  Faithful.  1)  Private 
Devotion;  2)  The  General  Prayer  in  the  form  of  a  Litany,  the  con- 
gregation responding  to  each  section  with  the  Kyrie;  3)  The  Collect; 
4)  The  Offertorium  or  Oblation  of  bread  and  wine,  oil  and  frank- 
incense; 5)  The  Pax  and  Kiss  of  Peace;  6)  The  Preface:  Salutation 
and  Response,  Sursum  corda.  Proper  Preface,  Sanctus,  sung  by 
congregation;  7)  Consecration  with  words  of  institution;  8)  General 
Intercessory  Prayer;  9)  Prayer  post  oblata;  10)  Lord's  Prayer  (with 
Sancta  Sanctis  and  Gloria  in  excelsis) ;  11)  The  Communion  (with 
Videte  et  gaudete  Psalm) ;  12)  Post  Communion,  with  Prayer  of 
Thanksgiving,  Benediction,  and  poreuesthe  en  irene,  Ite  in  pace. 
The  reciting  or  chanting  of  the  Creed  was  not  introduced  into  the 
liturgy  until  471  A.  D.,  by  Petrus  Fullo,  bishop  of  Antioch.235) 

It  is  evident  that  up  to  this  time  the  sacrificial  and  the  sacra- 
mental elements  were  fairly  well  distributed  and  balanced  in  the 
liturgy.  The  services  consisted  in  the  transmission  of  the  grace  of 
God  in  Word  and  Sacrament  to  the  congr^ation,  which  received 
these  assurances  of  the  mercy  of  God  in  and  through  Christ  with 
prayers  of  supplication,  praise,  and  thanksgiving.  After  the  Council 
of  Nicaea,  however,  the  sacramental  element  receded  more  and  more 
into  a  hazy  background,  while  the  sacrificial  character  of  the  liturgy 
became  more  and  more  prominent,  as  will  be  shown  presently. 


CHAPTER  3. 
The  Divergent  Orders  from  the  Beginning  of  the  Fourth  Century. 

From  all  the  evidence  which  is  at  hand  concerning  the  form  of 
Christian  worship  in  the  first  three  centuries,  there  does  not  seem  to 
have  been  a  written  liturgy  in  sub-apostolic  and  ante-Nicean  times. 
This  does  not  imply,  of  course,  that  the  sources  of  some  of  the  latei; 
liturgies  may  not  extend  much  farther  back,  that  their  nuclei,  in  fact, 
may  have  existed  in  apostolic  times.  As  the  discussion  in  the  last 
chapter  showed,  there  were  also  certain  fixed  forms,  prayers,  responses, 
etc.,  which  showed  little  variation  in  the  various  countries  to  which 
the  missionary  efforts  of  the  Church  had  been  extended.  But  these 
forms  had  evidently  not  yet  been  codified,  or  there  would  probably  be 
some  contemporary  reference  to  such  a  document. 

With  the  fourth  century,  however,  when  the  Christian  religion 
was  no  longer  merely  tolerated,  but  became  the  acknowledged  religion, 
the  state  church  of  the  Roman  Empire,  the  forms  of  service  which 


235)  Alt,  Der  kirchliche  Oottesdienst,  184 — ^201;  Schuette,  Propositions 
on  Liturgies,  96.  97. 


248        THE  DIVERGENT  ORDERS  FROM  THE   FOURTH   CENTURY. 

had  been  handed  down  by  tradition  were  written  down  in  the  various 
countries,  and  many  manuscripts  of  such  early  liturgies  have  been 
preserved,  thus  enabling  us  to  follow  the  development  of  the  worship 
in  each  country.  There  are  different  methods  of  classifying  these 
early  forms  of  worship.  If  one  wishes  to  go  back  as  far  as  possible 
and  trace  all  the  various  excrescences  and  branches,  the  division  into 
four  great  groups  or  parent  liturgies  is  usually  adopted:  the  Jerusa- 
lem, the  Ephesine,  the  Alexandrian,  and  the  Roman.  Some  liturgi- 
ologists  think  this  outline  too  narrow  and  distinguish  the  Jerusalem, 
the  Antioch,  the  Persian,  the  Constantinopolitan,  the  Alexandrian 
(including  the  Coptic  or  Sahidic  and  the  Ethiopic),  the  Korth  Afri- 
can, the  Roman,  the  Ambrosian,  the  Gallican,  and  the  Mozarabic 
liturgies.  For  our  purposes,  it  will  probably  be  best  to  assume  that 
there  were  five  great  nuclei  for  the  forms  of  worship  found  in  the 
various  Eastern  and  Western  countries,  from  the  fourth  to  the  tenth 
centuries,  and  existing,  in  part,  to  this  day.  These  great  centers  of 
ecclesiastical  life  were  Jerusalem,  Antioch,  Ephesus,  Alexandria,  and 
Rome,  with  Constantinople  as  a  sixth,  .  after  the  end  of  the  fifth 
century. 

It  is  possible,  and  perhaps  even  probable,  that  the  nuclei  of  both 
the  Palestinian  and  the  Syrian  liturgies  may  be  found  in  the  source 
of  the  order  given  in  Book  VIII  of  the  Apostolic  Constitutions. 
Modern  scholarship  is  not  yet  agreed  upon  the  time  of  this  order. 
Since  it  bears  a  great  resemblance  to  the  Constitutions  of  Hippolytus, 
the  Canones  Hippolyti,  it  has  been  said  to  have  been  derived  from 
them,  which  would  place  it  between  350  and  400  A.  D.236)  Brightman 
refers  to  the  discussions  by  Funk,  Hamack,  and  Achelis  (p.  xix). 
Mercer  says  of  this  order:  "The  Apostolic  Constitutions  is  a  fourth 
century  pseudo-apostolic  collection  consisting  of  eight  books;  .  .  .  the 
Constitutions  of  Hippolytus  are  thought  to  be  an  epitome  or  else  a 
shortened  form  of  a  first  draft  of  A.  C.  YIII."  237)  If  one  concedes 
that  the  order,  as  at  present  preserved,  is  a  late  fourth  century  product, 
one  may,  nevertheless,  with  Probst,  Bunsen,  and  others,  assume  that 
the  liturgy  itself,  or  at  least  the  nucleus  of  the  liturgy,  may  have  been 
in  existence  before  the  Council  of  Nicaea,  and  perhaps  even  in  the 
middle  of  the  third  century.^ss) 

The  order  of  worship  of  this  book,  known  as  the  Clementine 
Liturgy,  after  Clement  of  Antioch,  includes  the  following  parts: 
I.  Missa  Catechumenorum :  Fourfold  Lections,  Law,  Prophets,  Epistles 


236)  Cp.  Srawle.y,  The  Early  History  of  the  Liturgy,  Chapter  IV; 
Schaff-Herzog  Encyclopedia,  sub  voce. 

237)  The  Ethiopic  Liturgy,  48.  49. 

238)  Cp.  Palmer,   Liturgicae   Origines,   I,    Chapter  I;     Ante-Nicene 
Library,  XVII,  Part  II:  3;  Horn,  Liturgies,  101. 


THE  DIVERGENT  ORDERS  FROM  THE  FOURTH  CENTURY.        249 

and  Acts,  Gospels;  Salutation  and  Response;  Sermon;  Dismissals, 
1)  Unbelievers,  2)  Catechumens  after  prayer  for  them,  3)  Ener- 
gumens  after  prayer,  4)  Photizomens  after  prayer,  5)  Penitents  after 
prayer;  General  Prayer.  II.  Missa  Fidelium.  General  Prayers,  in- 
tercessory; Kiss  of  Peace;  Oblation  or  Offertory;  Anaphora  (Thanks- 
giving—  Apostolic  Greeting,  Sursum,  Preface,  Sanctus — ,  Prayer 
with  Words  of  Institution,  Invocation,  Intercession,  Blessing,  Incli- 
nation, Elevation  —  with  Sancta  Sanctis  and  Gloria  in  excelsis  — , 
Communion) ;  Postcommunion  with  Thanksgiving  and  Prayer  of 
Dismissal;  dpolyesthe  en  ireneP^)  The  resemblance  between  this 
order  and  that  gained  from  Justin  Martyr  is  very  striking,  as  Palmer 
points  out.  There  are  other  documents  of  this  period  which  may  be 
consulted  to  round  out  the  history  of  liturgical  origins  in  the  Orient. 
Among  these  are  the  Apostolic  Canons  appended  to  Book  VIII  of  the 
Apostolic  Constitutions,  the  Didascalia,  the  Testament  of  Oui*  Lord, 
the  Egyptian  Heptateuch,  the  Ethiopic  Statutes,  the  Verona  Latin 
Fragments,  the  Canons  of  Hippolytus,  and  the  Constitutions  of  Hip- 
polytus,  all  of  which  are  discussed  by  Mercer  in  connection  with  the 
earliest  church  orders  in  the  East.^^O) 

The  liturgy  which  has  exerted  the  most  profound  and  lasting  in- 
fluence upon  the  development  of  the  order  of  worship  in  the  East,  is 
that  ,of  Jerusalem,  commonly  known  as  the  Liturgy  of  St.  James. 
Modem  critics  will  not  concede  to  this  order  a  greater  antiquity  than 
the  beginning  of  the  fourth  century,  but  Neale  is  very  emphatic  in 
declaring  that  the  most  important  parts  have  descended  unchanged 
from  the  apostolic  authors  and  that  the  liturgy  may  have  been  writ- 
ten down  before  200  A.  D.241)  It  is  marked  by  the  increasing  length 
of  the  prayers  and  the  attention  paid  to  the  dramatic  element.  There 
are  also  special  prayers  preceding  the  service  proper,  those  of  the 
Prothesis,  the  Parastasis,  and  the  Enarxis.  The  preparation  for  the 
entrance  to  the  Holy  Place  is  attended  by  a  special  prayer,  prayers 
are  said  at  the  entrance  and  during  the  passage  to  the  altar.  Then 
the  Mass  of  the  Catechumens  begins :  Salutation  and  Response ;  Bid- 
ding Prayer ;  Trisagion  by  the  singers ;  Lections ;  Prayer  with  answer- 
ing Kyrie  by  people;  Gospel;  Dismissal  of  Catechumens.  The  Mass 
of  the  Faithful  is  also  characterized  by  very  long  prayers:  General 
Intercessory  Prayers;  Great  Entrance;  Creed;  Kiss  of  Peace;  Incli- 
nation; Offertory  Prayers;  Anaphora  (Salutation  and  Response, 
Thanksgiving,  Sursum,  Praefatio,  Sanctus,  Invocation,  Intercession, 
Lord's  Prayer,  Inclination,  Blessing,  Manual  Acts,  —  Sancta  Sanc- 


239)  Brightman,  Liturgies  Eastern  and  Western,  I,  3—27;  Ante-Nicene 
Library,  XVII,  Part  11:  212—237;  Horn,  Liturgies,  101—103. 

240)  The  Ethioiiic  Liturgu.  46—50.  241)  Earty  Liturgies,  4. 


250        THE  DIVERGENT  ORDERS  FROM  THE  FOURTH  CENTURY. 

tis  — ,  Communion) ;  Thanksgiving ;  Inclination ;  Dismissal ;  Closing 
Prayer  in  sacristy.242) 

There  are  other  documents  which  are  important  in  the  discussion 
of  the  liturgy  of  Palestine,  Among  these  are  the  Mystagogic  Catecheses 
of  Cyril  of  Jerusalem,  Nos.  19 — 23,  A.  D.  348,  containing  instructions 
on  Baptism,  confirmation,  and  the  Eucharist.  According  to  his  out- 
line, the  Anaphora  contained  the  following  parts:  1)  Washing  of 
hands  (Ps.  26,  6);  2)  Kiss  of  Peace;  3)  Sursum  corda;  4)  Sanctus; 
5)  Invocation ;  6)  Intercessions ;  7)  Lord's  Prayer,  the  people  respond- 
ing with  Amen;  8)  Sancta  Sanctis;  9)  Communion  (with  singing  of 
Ps.  35,  9) ;  10)  Final  Thanksgiving.^*^)  Some  information  is  also 
contained  in  Eusebius  (about  339  A.  D.),  in  Jerome,  who  was  at 
Bethlehem  from  386  to  420,  and  in  the  Pilgrimage  of  Etheria,  about 
the  end  of  the  fourth  century.  It  appears  that  there  was  a  night 
office  at  cock-crow  in  the  Church  of  the  Anastasis,  and  at  day-break 
a  gathering  at  the  greater  basilica  on  Golgotha,  with  sermons  by  the 
presbyters  and  bishop.  The  missa  fidelium  was  held  at  a  smaller 
church.244) 

The  Liturgy  of  St.  James  was  used  in  the  churches  of  Judea, 
Samaria,  Mesopotamia,  Syria,  and  the  adjacent  provinces  of  Asia 
Minor,  that  used  by  the  Orthodox  section  of  the  Eastern  Church  being 
in  Greek.  It  is  used  in  that  language  to  this  day  in  Jerusalem,  but 
only  on  one  day  in  the  year,  namely  on  the  festival  of  St.  James.  But 
the  theological  discussions  between  the  councils  of  Nicaea  and  Chal- 
cedon  (325 — 451  A.  D.)  had  their  effect  also  upon  the  liturgy.  The 
Nestorians  did  not  hesitate  to  compose  a  liturgy  in  Syriac,  which 
shows  some  dependence  upon  that  of  St.  James.  Neither  did  they 
refuse  to  translate  their  liturgy  into  the  language  of  any  people  with 
whom  they  came  in  contact.  Their  order  of  worship  was  used  in  the 
language  of  Arabia,  of  Turkey,  of  Persia,  and  of  India.  The  liturgy 
of  India  is  that  of  Malabar  or  the  "Mass  of  the  Ancient  Thomas 
Christians  in  the  Mountains  of  Malabar  in  Eastern  India,"  which 
was  recast  at  the  end  of  the  16th  century  to  conform  with  the  doc- 
trine of  the  Eoman  Catholic  Church,  whose  missionaries  had  at  that 
time  penetrated  to  this  far  country.  Liturgiologists  distinguish  three 
orders  of  the  Nestorians  or  Chaldean  Christians :  1)  The  Liturgy  of 
S.  Adaeus  and  S.  Maris,  which  Neale  thought  so  important  that  he 
assigned  to  it  an  independent  position  among  the  Eastern  liturgies, 
whence  it  is  sometimes  called  the  Persian  Liturgy  or  the  Liturgy  of 
Edessa;  2)  The  Liturgy  of  Theodorus;  3)  The  Liturgy  of  Nestorius. 


242)  Brightman,  Op.  cit.,  I,  31—68;  494—501;  Early  Liturgies,  11 — 45. 

243)  Mercer,  52;  Brightman,  464 — 467. 

244)  Srawley,  Early  History  of  the  Liturgy,  Chapter  IV. 


THE  DIVERGENT  ORDERS  FROM  THE  FOURTH  CENTURY.        251 

The  Nestorian  or  Persian  rite,  as  now  in  use,  with  the  Anaphora  of 
■  SS.  Addai  and  Mari,  is  so  overlaid  with  later  material  that  the  re- 
construction of  the  original  form  has  not  yet  been  carried  out  success- 
fully. According  to  Brightman,  the  following  parts  are  included  in 
the  service:  Enarxis  (Gloria  in  excelsis.  Lord's  Prayer,  Trisagion, 
Prayer,  Psalms,  Anthem  of  Sanctuary,  Prayer,  Washing  of  Hands) ; 
Mass  of  the  Catechumens  (Sursum,  Sanctus,  Lections,  Anthem  of 
Praise,  Prayer,  Apostle,  Prayer  before  Gospel,  Gospel,  Anthem  of  the 
Gospel) ;  Mass  of  the  Faithful  (Prayers  with  answering  Kyrie  of  the 
people,  Inclination,  Offertory,  Anthem  of  the  Mysteries,  Creed,  Pre- 
paration for  Anaphora,  Diptychs,  Kiss  of  Peace,  Anaphora  —  Prayer 
of  Incense,  Thanksgiving,  Sursum,  Preface,  Sanctus,  Words  of  In- 
stitution, Intercession,  Invocation,  Fraction  and  Consignation,  Bles- 
sing, Comminution,  Lord's  Prayer,  Elevation,  Communion,  —  Thanks- 
giving, Dismissal,  Eulogia,  Prayers.^*^) 

The  Monophysites  of  Syria,  usually  called  the  Syrian  Jacobites, 
also  adopted  a  liturgy  in  their  own  language,  and  chose  the  Liturgy 
of  St.  James.246)  Its  general  order  is  the  same  as  that  of  the  Greek 
text,  only  a  few  parts  being  amplified  largely.  The  rite  is  character- 
ized by  the  prayers  of  dreadfulness :  "Behold  a  time  of  fear  and  be- 
hold an  hour  full  of  trembling  .  .  .  Tremble,  ye  ministers  of  the 
church  for  that  ye  administer  a  living  fire  and  the  power  which  ye 
wield  surpasseth  seraphim's  .  .  .  How  dreadful  is  this  hour  and  how 
terrible  this  moment.  It  is  the  moment  when  the  spirit  of  life  and 
holiness  comes  down  to  the  sacrifice  of  the  altar  and  sanctifies  it. 
Pray  with  fear  and  trembling !"  24") 

In  the  meantime,  the  western  provinces  of  Asia  Minor  were  de- 
veloping their  order  of  services.  So  far  as  the  region  of  Laodicea  is 
concerned,  the  Canons  of  that  church  of  ca.  363  show  that  the  order 
of  worship  was  substantially  that  of  Syria  and  Jerusalem:  1)  Old 
and  New  Testament  Lessons,  with  a  Psalm  between  each  two  Lessons ; 
2)  Sermon;  3)  Prayer  for  Catechumens  and  Dismissal;  4)  Prayer  for 
Penitents  and  Dismissal;  5)  Three  Prayers  for  the  Faithful;  6)  Eliss 
of  Peace;  7)  Communion.^^s) 

The  liturgy  of  the  Cappadocian  church  may  be  summarized  from 
the  references  of  Firmilian  of  Caesarea,  Gregory  Thaumatourgos  of 
Cappadocia,  both  of  the  third  century;  of  Gregory  of  Xazianzus, 
Gregory  of  Nyssa,  and  especially  of  Basil  the  Great,  of  the  fourth 
century;  and  from  the  canons  of  several  councils.    While  the  liturgy 


245)  Liturgies  Eastern  and  Western.  I,  247 — 305.  490 — 494.  Cp.  Sum- 
mary in  Alt,  Der  kirchliehe  Gottesdienst,  372.  373,  of  the  liturgy  of  In- 
dia; EarJi/  Liturgies,  77 — 92. 

246)  Alt,  II,  282— 2\»2.  247)  Brightman,  I,  69—110;  Alt,  374. 
248)  Mercer,  The  Ethiopic  Liturgy,  55;  Brightman,  518.  519. 


252   THE  DIVERGENT  ORDERS  FROM  THE  FOURTH  CENTURY. 

ascribed  to  Basil  may  not  be  his  work  in  the  present  form,  it  is  gener- 
ally conceded  that  its  nucleus  is  based  upon  his  liturgical  writings, 
in  other  words,  he  codified  the  form  of  worship  which  he  found.  The 
general  outline  of  the  liturgy  in  the  church  of  Cappadocia  was  the 
following:  1)  Lessons  from  Old  and  New  Testaments  with  Psalms; 
2)  Sermon,  preceded  by  Salutation  of  Peace;  3)  Prayers  for  and 
Dismissal  of  akroomenoi,  catechumens,  energumens,  cheimazomenoi, 
kneelers,  hypopiptontes;  4)  Prayers  of  the  Faithful;  5)  Kiss  of  Peace; 
6)  Offerings;  7)  Oblations  brought  to  Altar;  8)  Sanctus;  9)  Institu- 
tion; 10)  Invocation;  11)  Fraction  and  Communion;  12)  Blessing.^^S) 
Since  the  patriarchate  of  Caesarea  extended  from  the  Hellespont  in 
the  west  to  the  Euphrates  in  the  east,  including  all  of  Asia  Minor  but 
proconsular  Asia,  Phrygia,  and  the  southern  maritime  provinces,  the 
liturgy  of  Basil  obtained  a  wide  use.  When  the  patriarchate  of  Cae- 
sarea came  under  the  jurisdiction  of  Constantinople,  in  the  middle 
of  the  fifth  century,  the  liturgy  of  Basil  was  accepted  for  the  entire 
exarchate.  The  best  text  of  this  rite  is  therefore  known  as  the  Con- 
stantinopolitan,  while  that  of  Cappadocia  is  a  Syrian  text.  This 
order  has  also  been  thought  to  have  been  the  basis  of  the  Alexandrian, 
or  at  least  to  have  influenced  it  at  the  time  of  Cyril. 

Armenia  had  been  Christianized  in  the  third  and  fourth  cen- 
turies, chiefly  through  the  labors  of  Gregorius  Illuminator.  In  the 
fifth  century  the  persecutions  on  the  part  of  the  Persian  kings  inter- 
fered,with  the  free  spread  of  Christianity,  and  in  the  sixth  century 
the  Monophysite  errors  were  accepted,  the  Synod  of  Twin  (595  A.  D.) 
declaring  its  adoption  of  that  heresy,  whereby  the  separation  from 
the  Orthodox  Church  was  carried  into  effect.  The  liturgy,  which  was 
at  first  that  of  Basil,  has  received  additions  from  the  Jacobites  of 
Syria,  from  Constantinople,  and  from  other  sources.  The  order  of 
worship  in  the  simplest  form  is  the  following:  1)  Psalm;  2)  Lessons 
from  Prophets,  Epistles,  Gospels;  3)  Dismissal  of  Catechumens,  etc.; 
4)  Anaphora  (Kiss  of  Peace,  Benediction,  Sursum  corda.  Thanks- 
giving, Tersanctus,  Continuation  of  Thanksgiving,  Institution, 
Verbal  Oblation,  Invocation  of  Holy  Ghost,  Prayers  for  the  Church, 
for  all  Men  and  all  Things,  Lord's  Prayer  and  Benediction  of  People, 
Sancta  Sanctis,  Breaking  of  Bread,  Communion)  ;  5)  Postcommunion 
with  Thanksgiving.250) 

Byzantium,  the  new  capital  of  Constantine  the  Great,  was  by 
him  elevated  to  the  dignity  of  a  metropolitan,  patriarchal  center.  The 
second  general  Council  of  Constantinople,  in  381  A.  D.,  raised  the 


249)  Srawley,  Early  History  of  the  Liturgy,  Chapter  V;  Mercer,  55. 
56;  Brightman,  521—526. 

250)  Brightman,  I,  412 — 457;  Palmer,  Liturgieae  Origines,  I,  Appen- 
dix; Alt,  Das  Kirchenjahr,  221. 


THE  DIVERGENT  ORDERS  FROM  THE  FOURTH  CENTURY.        253 

bishop  to  a  i>osition  of  power  second  only  to  that  of  the  bishop  of 
Rome.  The  patriarchate  acquired  the  jurisdiction  of  Thrace,  and  in 
the  middle  of  the  next  century  also  that  of  the  patriarchates  of  Ephe- 
sus  and  Caesarea.  Beside  the  liturgy  of  Basil,  these  churches  have, 
from  very  early  times,  made  use  of  a  liturgy  bearing  the  name  of 
Chrysostom.251)  His  early  life  at  Antioch  had  brought  him  in  touch 
with  the  best  liturgical  traditions  of  the  East.  It  was  a  time  of  a 
growing  fixity  of  liturgical  forms,  and  Chrysostom  undoubtedly  made 
use  of  the  traditions  of  Basil,  as  transmitted  by  his  predecessor  in 
the  patriarchate,  Gregory  Nazianzen.  The  outline  of  his  liturgy,  in 
its  original  form,  may  be  given  as  follows:  Missa  Catechumenorum: 
Salutation,  Lessons  (Prophets,  Epistles  or  Acts,  Gospel),  Sermon, 
prefaced  by  Salutation  and  followed  by  Dismissal  of  Catechumens, 
etc.;  Missa  Fidelium:  Deacon's  Litany  (Salutation  and  Blessing,  Of- 
fering of  Bread  and  Wine),  Kiss  of  Peace,  Anaphora  (Salutation, 
Preface,  Sursum  corda,  Dignum,  Sanctus,  Listitution,  Invocation, 
Intercession  for  Living  and  Dead,  responded  to  by  Amen,  Fraction, 
Distribution),  Postcommunion  (Thanksgiving,  Dismissal  with  "Go 
in  Peace."  252)  Out  of  this  liturgy,  in  the  course  of  time,  grew  the 
order  of  worship  which  is  at  present  used  in  the  Greek  and  Russian 
churches.    This  will  be  discussed  in  greater  detail  below. 

Recent  writers  on  liturgies  devote  very  little  space  to  the  discus- 
sion of  the  Ephesine  Liturgy,  chiefly,  perhaps,  because  there  is  no 
part  of  the  order  extant,  and  also  because  the  matter  is  again  touched 
upon  in  the  history  of  the  developed  permanent  liturgies.  There  are 
two  reasons  for  assuming  the  presence  of  a  liturgy  in  Ephesus  at  the 
end  of  the  first  and  during  the  second  century.  The  church  at  Lug- 
dunum  or  Lyons,  in  southern  Gaul,  had  a  liturgy  different  from  that 
of  Rome,  and  it  was  founded  by  missionaries  from  the  exarchate  of 
Ephesus,  Irenaeus,  the  second  bishop,  having  been  a  disciple  of  bishop 
Polycarp  of  Smyrna.  And  the  Council  of  Laodicea  (348 — 381),  which 
was  attended  by  bishops  from  the  provinces  of  Asia  and  Phrygia,  in 
its  19th  canon  regulated  the  order  of  worship,  thus  signifying  that  a 
different  order  had  previously  been  used.  The  exarchate  of  Ephesus 
at  that  time  extended  over  the  provinces  of  Hellespontum,  Phrygia, 
Asia,  Lycaonia,  Pamphylia,  and  the  maritime  territory  included 
within  their  boundaries.  It  is  very  probable,  as  tradition  has  it,  that 
the  first  order  of  service  in  Ephesus  was  introduced  by  St.  Paul,  and 
later  amplified  by  St.  John.  Since  the  founding  of  the  church  at 
Lyons  must  have  taken  place  about  the  beginning  of  the  second  cen- 


251)  Palmer.  I.  Chapter  IV. 

252)  Brightman,  I,  527 — 551;  Srawley,  Early  Histoi'y  of  the  Liturgy, 
Chapter  IV;  Mercer,  The  Ethiopic  Liturgy,  56. 


254       THE  DIVEBGENT  OBDERS  FBOM  THE  FOUBTH  CENTUBY. 

tury,  the  supposition  is  that  these  missionaries  introduced  the  original 
Ephesine  liturgy  in  the  congregation  which  was  presently  organized. 
The  order  of  services  which  was  thus  established  in  southern  France 
became  the  nucleus  from  which  the  Galilean  liturgy  was  developed, 
from  the  third  to  the  sixth  century.  Hilary  of  Poictiers  (d.  368)  is 
credited  by  Jerome  as  having  been  the  first  to  codify  the  Galilean 
Liturgy.  He  was  followed  by  Claudianus  Mamercus,  bishop  of  Vi- 
enna (ca.  450)  and  Musaeus  of  Marseilles  (ca.  458).  Of  Sidonius 
ApoUinaris,  bishop  of  Auvergne  (473 — 494),  Gregory  of  Tours  relates 
that  he  could  recite  Mass  without  a  book.  A  little  later,  the  Council 
of  Vannes  (465)  and  the  Concilium  Epaonense  (517)  fixed  the  liturgy 
by  a  decree.  At  the  time  of  Gregory  the  Great,  the  Galilean  Liturgy 
was  still  in  general  use,  although  there  are  indications  of  Boman  in- 
fluence. This  form  of  worship  at  that  time  extended  throughout  the 
Frankish  empire.  The  Boman  rites  were  first  generally  introduced 
in  place  of  the  GaUican  by  Pipin,  and  Charlemagne  enforced  the 
l^slation  introducing  the  Roman  Liturgy.  There  are  several  of  the 
Galilean  service  books  accessible  in  good  editions,  the  latest  one  being 
the  Missale  Gothicum  in  the  Henry  Bradshaw  Society  publications. 
The  order  of  worship  in  the  fully  developed  Galilean  Liturgy  was  the 
following:  Anthem,  Gloria  Patri,  Salutation  and  Besponse,  Trisa- 
gion,  Kyrie,  Benedictus  and  Collecta  post  prophetiam,  Lesson  from 
Old  Testament,  Epistle,  Baiedicite  or  Hymn  of  Three  Children, 
Gospel,  Anthem  by  Choir,  Sermon,  Prayers,  Collecta  post  precem, 
Dismissal  of  Catechumens;  Praefatio,  Prayer,  Oblations,  Offertory, 
Li vocation  of  God  on  gifts  (in  later  times  only),  Diptychs,  Collecta 
post  nomina.  Salutation  and  Eass  of  Peace,  Collecta  ad  pacem;  Ana- 
phora began  with  Preface  and  Canon  (Sursum  corda,  Thanksgiving 
called  Contestatio  or  Immolatio,  Tersanctus),  Post  sanctus.  Institu- 
tion, Collecta;  Post  mysterium  or  Post  secreta  (with  verbal  oblation 
of  bread  and  wine  and  invocation  to  Holy  Spirit) ,  Breaking  of  Bread, 
Lord's  Prayer,  Benediction  and  Amen,  Communion,  Collect  of 
Thanksgiving.253) 

Closely  related  to  the  Galliean  Liturgy  is  the  Mozarahic  Rite, 
thought  by  most  liturgiologists  to  be  an  offshoot  of  the  Galliean, 
though  one  might  assume  that  the  nucleus  of  the  Ephesine  liturgy 
was  brought  to  Spain  by  St.  Paul  and  his  disciples  after  him,  since 
a  number  of  authorities  agree  that  he  visited  Hispania.  But  no  mat- 
ter what  the  first  beginnings  were,  it  seems  reasonably  sure  to  state 
that  the  Goths,    when  they  overran  Spain,    were  using  the  Greek- 


253)  Palmer,  Liturgicae  Origines,  I,  Chapter  IX;  Kliefoth.  Die  ur- 
spruenyliche  Gotte^diemtordnung,  II.  324 — 462;  Daniel,  Codex  liturgicus, 
I,  49—113. 


THE  DIVERGENT  ORDERS  FROM  THE   FOURTH  CENTURY.        255 

Oriental  liturgy.  This  was  translated  before  563  by  Martin  of  Braza. 
Subsequently,  several  leaders  in  the  Spanish  Church  visited  the 
Orient,  bringing  back  further  material.  And  finally,  Isidor  of  Sevilla 
codified  the  parts  of  the  liturgy  and  prevailed  upon  the  Council  of 
Toledo  (633)  to  establish  the  decree  for  the  entire  country  of  Spain 
and  Karbonensis,  "ut  unus  ordo  psallendi  conservetur."  Further  ad- 
ditions were  made  by  Ildefons  of  Toledo  (ca.  660)  and  by  Julianus 
of  Toledo  (d.  728).  At  the  Mohammedan  invasion  the  name  Moz- 
arabic  was  applied  to  the  liturgy  (Arab  Arabe,  Arab  Most-Arabe  —  an 
Arab  by  adoption,  softened  into  Mozarabic).  It  was  approved  by 
John  X  about  920  A.  D.254)  Its  further  history  will  be  discussed  be- 
low when  the  order  of  service  will  be  examined. 

^^^len  the  churches  of  Gaul  had  been  established  with  some  de- 
gree of  firmness,  they  immediately  sent  out  missionaries  to  other 
countries.  It  was  in  this  manner  that  the  Oallican  Rite  was  spread 
through  Germany,  especially  in  the  parts  directly  under  Frankish  in- 
fluence. It  was  in  this  way,  also,  that  the  Gallican  Liturgy  was  in- 
troduced into  Great  Britain,  for  we  have  records  showing  that  bishops 
from  England  (Britannia)  were  in  attendance  at  the  synods  of  Gaul 
as  early  as  the  fourth  century.  It  is  for  this  reason  that  English 
liturgiologists  emphasize  the  Ephesine  origin  of  the  early  liturgy  of 
their  country.  The  history  of  this  development  is  so  important  and 
interesting  that  it  will  be  referred  to  at  length  in  a  chapter  on  the 
liturgy  of  Great  Britain. 

The  civil  diocese  of  Africa  embraced  the  provinces  of  Africa 
Proconsularis,  Numidia,  Byzacium,  Tripoli,  and  the  two  Mauretanias. 
The  written  liturgy  of  this  formerly  flourishing  country  of  congre- 
gations has  disappeared,  and  only  by  comparing  the  writings  of  Ter- 
tullian  (d.  235),  Cyprian  (d.  258),  Optatus  (ca.  363),  and  Augustine 
(ca.  395)  are  we  enabled  to  gain  a  connected  picture  of  the  order  of 
service  at  the  end  of  the  fourth  century  and  in  the  fifth  century. 
Neale  and  other  students  believe  that  the  liturgy  of  North  Africa 
was  developed  from  the  Ephesine  nucleus,  missionaries  from  the 
province  of  Asia  having  been  the  founders  of  the  first  African  con- 
gregations.255)  Others  are  equally  positive  that  the  North  African 
rite  was  based  upon  that  of  Rome.  Certain  it  is  that  the  Invocation 
or  Epiklesis  points  to  the  Orient,  while  other  parts  of  the  liturgy  re- 
mind one  strongly  of  the  early  Roman.  Probably  there  was  only  the 
Ephesine  nucleus,  the  other  elements  being  received  from  Rome.  The 
full  order  was  the  following:  1)  Salutation;  2)  Lessons  from  Old 
and  New  Testaments,  with  Psalms ;  3)  Sermon ;  4)  Dismissal  of  Cate- 


254)  Baeumer,  Oeschichte  des  Breviers;  Neale,  Essavs  on  Liturgiology, 
V;  Kliefoth,  11,  255—324. 

235)  Essays  on  Liturgiology,  V. 


256        THE  DIVERGENT  OEDERS  FROM  THE  FOURTH  CENTURY. 

chumens;    5)   Prayer  of  the  Faithful;    6)    Offertory    &nd  Psalms; 

7)  Sursum  corda;  8)  Intercessions  and  Commemorations;  9)  Conse- 
cration; 10)  Fraction;  11)  Lord's  Prayer;  12)  Salutation;  13)  Kiss 
of  Peace;  14)  Blessing;  15)  Commimion,  with  Psalm;  16)  Thanks- 
giving.256)  The  position  of  the  kiss  of  peace  after  the  consecration 
is  characteristic  of  the  North  African  rite.257) 

The  liturgy  of  the  church  of  Northern  Italy,  commonly  known 
as  the  Amhrosian  Liturgy,  has  also  been  traced  to  Ephesine  sources. 
Neale  says  that  it  is  a  branch  of  the  Ephesine  family,  molded  by  con- 
tact with  the  Petrine  liturgy. 258)  There  seems  to  be  a  general  con- 
sensus of  opinion  that  the  Milanese  office  was  derived  directly  from 
the  Orient,  its  first  two  bishops  having  been  disciples  of  Barnabas. 
^Vhen  Ambrose  became  bishop,  in  374,  he  not  only  opposed  the  here- 
tics and  pagans,  but  also  worked  for  the  Church  in  a  practical  way 
by  developing  the  liturgy,  the  so-called  Ambrosian  Chant  being  in< 
troduced  by  him.  After  his  death,  in  397,  the  Milanese  liturgy  grad- 
ually assumed  completeness,  and  the  Ambrosian  office  was  probably 
perfected  in  its  most  important  parts  by  493.  By  568,  the  lesser 
hymns  and  lections  appear  to  have  formed  themselves.  From  568  to 
739  there  occurred  the  Aquileian  schism,  during  which  the  character 
of  the  Ambrosian  liturgy  was  fully  established.^^s)  Its  earliest  form 
may  be  determined  by  the  treatise  De  Sacramentis,  formerly  ascribed 
to  Pope  Innocent  I,  and  from  the  writings  of  Ambrose  himself.  The 
following  order  has  been  suggested:  1)  Lessons  from  Old  and  New 
Testaments,  with  Psalms;  2)  Sermon;  3)  Dismissal  of  Catechumens; 
4)  Prayers  of  the  Faithful;  5)  Offering;  6)  Sanctus;  7)  Intercession; 

8)  Institution;  9)  Invocation;  10)  Amen  after  Consecration;  11)  Kiss 
of  Peace;  12)  Postcommunion  Prayer  and  Comm\mion  Chant; 
13)  Benediction.260)  The  form  of  the  sixth  century  is  given  by  Pal- 
mer: Anthem  "Ingressu,"  Kyrie  eleison,  Gloria  in  excelsis.  Collect, 
Prophet,  Psalm,  Epistle,  Alleluia,  Gospel,  Sermon,  Prayer  "super 
sLadonem,"  Oblations  of  people,  Prayer  "super  oblata,"  Preface  and 
Canon  (without  second  oblation).  Fraction,  Kiss  of  Peace,  Com- 
munion, Prayer  "post  communionem."  26i)  Some  of  the  passages  in 
the  Ambrosian  liturgy  point  to  the  strong  development  of  the  sacri- 
ficial idea,  as  the  expressions  "Quod  figura  est  corporis  et  sanguinis,'' 
"incruenta  hostia,"  etc.,  tend  to  show.262)  Altogether,  the  Ambrosian 
liturgj'  had  neither  the  pregnant  brevity  of  the  Roman,  nor  the  rich- 
ness and  fulness  of  the  Mozarabic.263) 


256)  Mercer,  57.  257)  Srawley,  Chapter  ^'I. 

258)  Essays  on  LAturgiologv,  VI. 

259)  Neale,  Essays  on  Litiirgiology,  VI. 

260)  Mercer,  58.  261)  lAturgieae  Origines,  I,  Chapter  7. 

262)  Srawley,  Chapter  Vn.  f 

263)  Eichards-Painter,  Christian  Worship,  Chapter  IV. 


THE  DIVERGENT  ORDERS  FROM  THE  FOURTH  CENTURY.        257 

The  center  of  the  early  Christian  Church  in  Egypt  was  Alexan- 
dria. Tradition  has  it  that  the  patriarchate  of  Alexandria  was 
founded  by  St.  Mark,  to  whom  also  the  ancient  liturgy  of  Alexandria 
is  ascribed.  When  the  Monophysite  disturbances  extended  to  Egypt, 
the  result,  after  the  Council  of  Chalcedon,  was  a  schism,  which  in- 
fluenced also  the  liturgy.  The  orthodox  Melchites  came  under  the 
jurisdiction  of  Constantinople,  finally  adopting  the  liturgy  of  that 
church.  By  referring  to  the  writings  of  Athanasius  (d.  373),  Peter 
(d.  311),  Sozomen  (d.  448),  Cyril  (d.  444),  Timothy  (ca.  460),  Theo- 
philus  (ca.  412),  aud  Synesiiis  (d.  414),  and  comparing  passages  in 
their  writings  with  the  Ethiopic  Church  Order,  the  Latin  Verona 
Fragments,  the  Testament  of  Our  Lord,  the  Sahidic  Ecclesiastical 
Canon  64,  the  Sacramentary  of  Serapion,  bishop  of  Thmuis  (ca.  350 — 
356),  and  the  Papyrus  of  Der  Balyzeh  (end  of  fourth  century),  the 
following  composite  liturgy  is  suggested  by  Mercer :  Proanaphora  — 
1)  Reading  from  the  Old  Testament,  Gospels,  and  Epistles,  preceded 
by  the  attendamus  lectioni;  2)  Sermon;  3)  Prayers,  which  developed 
into  Diptychs;  4)  Prayer  of  the  Faithful;  5)  Kiss  of  Peace;  6)  Of- 
fertory; Anaphora  —  1)  Thanksgiving,  introduced  by  responses,  with 
Sursum  corda  and  Preface;  2)  Livocation;  3)  Institution;  4)  Anam- 
nesis; 5)  Oblation  and  Invocation;  6)  Invitation  to  Communion; 
7)  Communion ;  8)  Oil,  water,  and  cheese  offered  after  the  liturgy.264) 

''The  Greek  liturgy  of  Alexandria  was  probably  completed  under 
the  influence  of  St.  Cyril,  bishop  of  Alexandria,  about  the  beginning 
of  the  fifth  century,  and  it  appears  under  the  name  of  both  St.  Cyril 
and  St.  Mark.  It  may  be  considered  a  direct  development  of  the 
liturgy  first  used  at  Alexandria,  and  as  such  it  is  the  direct  parent  of 
the  Coptic  St.  Cyril  and  of  the  Ethiopic  liturgies,  and  also  the  source 
of  the  more  characteristic  features  of  Coptic  Basil  and  Gregory."  265) 
This  parent  liturgy  of  the  Egyptian  Church  is  given  by  Bright- 
man,266)  and  has  been  reconstructed  by  Mercer  in  its  probable  fifth 
century  forni.26")  It  contains  the  following  i^rincipal  parts:  The 
Little  Entrance,  Lections,  Prayers;  Mass  of  the  Faithftd  —  Prayer, 
Salutation,  Kiss  of  Peace,  Anaphora  (Thanksgiving  with  Sursum 
corda  aud  Preface,  Sanctus,  Invocation,  Intercession,  Lord's  Prayer, 
Inclination,  Manual  Acts,  Communion),  Thanksgiving,  Inclination, 
Dismissal.  This  order  agrees  also  in  all  main  parts  with  the  Ethiopic 
Twelve  Apostles,  St.  Cyril,  and  St.  Basil.268) 


264)  The  Ethiopic   Litnnjy,   G4;     Brightman,   I,   504—509;     Srawley, 
Chapter  III. 

265)  Mercer,  79. 

266)  Litutvics  Eastern  and  Western,  I,  113 — 143. 

267)  Op.  cit.,  116—137. 

268)  Mercer,  The  Ethiopic  Littirgy,  88—90. 

Kretzmann,  Christian  Art.  '  17 


258        THE  DIVERGENT  ORDERS  FROM  THE  FOURTH  CENTURY. 

After  the  Council  of  Chalcedon  (451),  the  Copts  allied  themselves 
with  the  Syrian  Jacobites  and  adopted  liturgies  translated  from  the 
Greek,  which  are  now  known  as  the  Coptic  or  Sahidic  Liturgy.  There 
are  three  Anaphoras  in  use,  namely  that  of  St.  Cyril,  of  St,  Basil, 
and  of  St.  Gregory  Nazianzen,  with  a  common  Proanaphora,  that  of 
St.  Mark.  The  liturgy  of  Basil  became  the  normal  liturgy  of  the 
Coptic  Monophysites,  Gregory  being  used  in  Lent,  and  Cyril  on 
festivals.269) 

The  Church  of  Abyssinia  was  founded  either  in  the  first  or  the 
early  second  centurj',  various  traditions  naming  Queen  Candace's 
eunuch,  St.  Matthew,  and  Frumentius  of  Tyre  as  the  founders.  The 
latter  was  made  bishop  of  the  Ethiopians  about  340  A.  D.  The  Abys- 
sinian Church  was  alwats  closely  connected  with  that  of  Lower  Egypt, 
and  when  Monophysitism  spread  in  the  valley  of  the  Nile,  it  was  in- 
troduced also  into  Ethiopia,  about  480  A.  D.  The  original  liturgy  of 
the  Abyssinian  Church  was  that  of  St.  Mark,  or  the  Alexandrian,  an 
outline  of  which  was  given  above.  After  480,  the  liturgy  was  trans- 
lated into  the  vernacular,  and  it  may  be  safely  asserted  that 
"the  liturgy  of  the  Ethiopic  Church  in  Abyssinia,  from  the  begin- 
ning of  the  sixth  century  on,  existed  and  was  said  in  the  Ethiopic 
language."  ^^)  From  that  time  forward,  also,  the  two  liturgies,  the 
Coptic  and  the  Ethiopic,  have  gradually  grown  apart  in  details, 
though  not  in  general  outline,  as  a  further  examination  will  show. 

There  remains  now  only  the  discussion  of  the  early  Roman  Bite. 
And  here  the  absence  of  documents  and  early  references  make  the 
silence  oppressive.  Tradition  says  that  the  liturgy  was  introduced 
by  St.  Peter  and  is  based  upon  apostolic  sources.  But  even  Baeumer 
does  not  go  beyond  this  statement.  Since,  however,  the  church  at 
Rome  was  founded  in  the  first  century,  it  is  undoubtedly  safe  to  as- 
sume, with  Srawley,  that  the  order  of  service  was  mainly  Greek  in 
character.  The  casual  references  of  Jerome  give  little  information 
as  to  its  development  after  the  middle  of  the  second  century.  The 
next  document  which  is  extant,  is  the  letter  to  Decentius,  ascribed  to 
Pope  Innocent  I  (416  A.  D.).  It  gives  evidence  of  some  liturgical 
customs  in  Rome:  the  kiss  of  peace  at  the  beginning  of  the  Canon, 
the  announcement  of  names  after  offerings  as  commended  to  God, 
and  the  fact  that  the  consecrated  Eucharist  was  sent  from  the  bishop's 
church  to  all  the  churches  in  the  city.^'i)  The  order  of  the  Roman 
liturgy  at  the  beginning  of  the  fifth  century,  as  given  by  Palmer,  is 
the  following:  Collect,  Lessons  preceded  by  Anthem  or  Psalm,  Ser- 
mon, Dismissal  of  Catechumens;  Silent  Prayers,  Oblation  and  Offer- 


269)  Mercer,  79.  80.  270)  Mercer,  142. 

271)  Srawley,  Early  History  of  the  Liturgy,  Chapter  VII. 


THE  DIVERGENT  ORDERS  FROM  THE  FOURTH  CENTURY. 


259 


tory,  Secrete  or  Super  oblata.  Preface  with  Sursvim  corda,  Tersanctus, 
Prayers  and  Commemoration  of  Living,  Prayer  over  Elements  —  "he 
made  to  us  the  body  and  blood  of  Jesus  Christ  our  Lord  God" — , 
Institution,  Oblation  of  Sacraments,  Commemoration  of  Departed 
and  Prayer  for  Communion  with  them,  Bread  Broken  for  Distribu- 
tion, Lord's  Prayer,  Kiss  of  Peace,  Distribution,  Conclusion  with 
Prayer.2'^2) 

In  concluding  this  chapter,  we  offer  the  following  chart,  on  the 


The   Development  of  the  Christ lan Utur^y 


Great  Oriental 


C  St.  James  : 
Jerusalem  and  ^xtiec/i. 


St  Basil        Syriac  of 
C37/)  Si^.  James 


Chrysostom 


Present 
Greek-ffiissiaif. 


A/e  to  n  di~ia  n 


(St.  Mark: 
A  le  n  a  n  d  r  ia  ) 


ffestorlan 
/4rmer 


5V  Cyr 

/         ^ 


or 
Sahidic 


EthiQp 

or  _ 
Abyssinian 


Ephesine-Gal/ican 


CSt.  Paul  and  St.Joh, 
Ephesus) 

I   V 

Gall  I  car  U-rfS^  \ 
/ 


Spar/si  or 
Afozarabic 


St  Auc^ustifc  oy 
C<*nterbury  C601] 


StOs^ufid  0/= 
Salisbury 
C/Oifn 

York,  Herefor\l 


An^fi  can 
Srottih-4mKrie<ti^\^Jr 

Amerio 
Comn 


l?Or 


(St.  Peter: 

f?ome) 


Leo 


THE   DEVELOPMENT   OF  THE   CHRISTIAN   LITURGY. 

basis  of  Gwynne,  which  serves  both  for  orientation  so  far  as  the  pre- 
ceding discussion  is  concerned,  and  prepares  for  the  better  under- 
standing of  the  subsequent  history  of  the  liturgj'. 


272)  Liturgicae  Orif/ines,  I,  Chapter  G. 


260  THE   DEVELOPMENT  OF  THE   ROMAN   LITURGY. 

CHAPTER  4. 
The  Development  of  the  Roman  Liturgy  to  its  Present  Form. 

The  history  of  the  Roman  liturgy,  strictly  speaking,  does  not  go 
back  beyond  the  fifth  century.  Whatever  statements  are  made  with 
regard  to  the  first  centuries  are  either  conjectures  based  upon  uncer- 
tain traditions  or  deductions  from  limited  references,  those  of  Clemens 
Komanus,  the  Shepherd  of  Hermas,  Justin  Martyr,  Jerome,  and  pos- 
sibly Hippolytus.  It  is  not  known  which  bishop  of  Rome  codified  the 
liturgical  forms  then  in  use  to  become  the  nucleus  of  the  present 
Roman  Mass.  Probst  is  evidently  wrong  in  referring  this  work  to 
Damasus  I  (336 — 384).  The  letter  of  Innocent  I  to  bishop  Decentius 
(ca.  416)  shows  that  the  kiss  of  peace  had  been  transferred  from  its 
position  at  the  beginning  of  the  Canon  to  its  end,  after  the  consecra- 
tion, and  just  before  the  communion.  Drews,  in  the  Schaff-Herzog 
Encyclopedia,  gives  the  following  order  of  the  Roman  Liturgy  in  the 
fifth  century:  I.  Alass  of  the  Catechumens.  1)  Epistle;  2)  Gradual 
and  Hallelujah;  3)  Gospel;  4)  Sermon;  5)  Dismissal;  6)  Mediatory 
Prayer.  II.  Mass  of  the  Faithful.  1)  Offertory;  2)  Secreta;  3)  Pre- 
face with  Sanctus;  4)  Prayer  introductory  to  the  Words  of  Institu- 
tion; 5)  Words  of  Institution;  6)  Anamnesis;  7)  Epiklesis  —  it  is 
doubtful  whether  this  feature  was  still  found  in  the  fifth  century — ; 
8)  Prayer  of  Intercession  with  Reading  of  the  Diptychs;  9)  Kiss  of 
Peace;  10)  Communion;  11)  Lord's  Prayer;  12)  Postcommunion ; 
13)  Blessing;  14)  Dismissal:  "Ite,  missa  est."  (Suh  voce  Mass). 
^  The  following  popes,  especially  Celestine  I  (422 — 432),  Leo  I 
(440 — 461),  after  whom  the  Missale  Leonianum  is  named,  Gelasius  I 
(492 — i96),  whose  Ordo  et  Canon  Missae  is  the  first  complete  church 
order  of  Rome,  and  Symmachus  (498 — 514),  who  ordered  the  daily 
use  of  the  Gloria  in  excelsis,  were  concerned  more  or  less  about  the 
liturgy.  It  seems  certain  that  the  fifth  century  saw  the  discontin- 
uance of  the  disciplina  arcani,  thus  abolishing  the  distinction  between 
the  Missa  catechumenorum  and  the  Missa  fidelium.  The  idea  of  an 
actual  sacrifice  in  the  Eucharist  became  more  prominent:  corpus 
Christi  est  in  altari.  By  the  end  of  the  fifth  century  the  Ordo  et 
Canon  Missae  embraced  the  following  parts:  Salutation  and  Re- 
sponse, Sursum  corda,  Preface  with  Commemoration  of  Saints  and 
Words  of  Institution,  Lord's  Prayer,  Communion,  Postcommunion 
with  fourteen  collects  "ad  libitum,"  Benedictions,  Fourteen  Col- 
lects.273) 

The  next  period  of  the  Roman  Liturgy  is  that  in  which  the  name 
of  Gregory  the  Great  (590 — 604)  stands  out  prominently.  His  biog- 
rapher, John  the  Deacon,  summarized  his  work  in  this  field  in  the 


273)  Daniel,  Codex  liturgicus,  I,  13 — 21. 


THE  DEVELOPMENT  OF  THE   EOMAN    LITURGY.  261 

one  brief  sentence:  "Taking  many  things  from  the  ceremonies  of 
the  Mass  in  the  Gelasian  Codex,  changing  a  few,  and  adding  some 
for  the  better  explanation  of  the  Gospel  lections,  he  comprised  the 
whole  in  one  volume."  274)  jjig  chief  aim  was  'the  rich  development 
of  the  liturgy  with  reference  to  the  heortology  of  the  church.  At  the 
same  time,  Gregory  insisted  upon  a  pregnant  brevity  in  collects  and 
prefaces,  a  feature  which  added  greatly  to  the  effectiveness  of  the 
services.  He  was  greatly  concerned  about  the  proper  singing  or 
chanting  of  the  service  and  introduced  the  mode  of  recitative  chant- 
ing which  bears  his  name  to  this  day.  The  order  of  worship  for  the 
service  of  the  Mass,  according  to  the  Ordo  et  Canon  Missae  Grego- 
rianus,  is  the  following:  Introitus,  Kyrie  eleison,  Gloria  in  excelsis, 
Oratio,  Apostolum,  Gradalis  seu  Alleluia,  Evangelium,  Offertorium 
or  Oratio  super  oblata,  Salutatio,  Sursum  corda,  Vere  dignum,  Pray- 
ers for  Living  and  Dead,  Words  of  Institution,  Lord's  Prayer,  Pax, 
Agnus  Dei,  Communion,  Antiphona  ad  communionem,  Postcommunio 
de  tempore,  Ite  missa  est.2'») 

There  are  several  iioints  that  should  be  noted  carefully  in  connec- 
tion with  the  Roman  Liturgy,  as  established  by  Gregory.  The  Lord's 
Prayer  was  transferred  to  the  place  just  before  the  Fraction  which 
preceded  the  Communion  of  the  priests,  instead  of  following  it  as 
heretofore.  The  difference  between  the  Roman  and  Greek  rites  be- 
came more  prominent:  1)  The  "moment  of  consecration"  in  the 
former  was  not  definitely  fixed  as  in  the  latter;  2)  The  Roman  con- 
tains no  intercession  for  various  classes  of  persons,  which  is  so  no- 
ticeable in  the  Greek;  3)  The  "corpus  et  sanguis  Christi"  marks  the 
advance    upon    the    Greek   "figura   corporis    et   sanguinis    Christi"; 

4)  The  conception  of  the  sacrifice  in  the  prayers  is  mainly  Eucharistic ; 

5)  The  prophetic  lesson  disappeared  at  Rome  in  the  fifth  century; 

6)  The  Invocation  or  Epiklesis,  which  may  have  been  in  use  in  the 
first  centuries,  was  omitted  at  an  early  date.^"^)  On  the  doctrinal 
side,  the  following  features  are  expressed  very  strongly  in  the  Roman 
Liturgy:  1)  That  the  priest  is  the  mediator  between  God  and  the 
people;  2)  That  he  has  power  to  transubstantiate,  though  the  word 
was  not  coined  till  somewhat  later;  3)  That  he  offers  a  sacrifice  in 
the  Mass ;  4)  That  he  has  the  power  to  forgive  sins  according  to  his 
discretion.  Thus  the  sacerdotal  idea  triumphed,  and  the  church 
showed  ever  more  plainly  a  false  position  with  regard  to  the  Eucharist 
and  the  way  to  salvation.277) 


274)  Quoted  in  Horn,  Outlines  of  Litiufnef.  106. 

275)  Daniel,  I,  12 — 20;    Kliefoth,  Die  nrspruengliche  Gottesdicnstord- 
nunff,  II.  Anhang;  €p.  213—217. 

276)  Cf.  Srawley,  Karly  Hintorif  of  the  Liturgy,  Chapter  ^^T. 

277)  Cp.  Richards-Painter,  Christian  Worship,  Chapter  IV;  Memoirs 
of  Lutheran  Liturgical  Associaiion,  V:  1. 


262  THE  DEVELOPMENT  OF  THE   ROMAN  LITURGY. 

Although  Gregory  himself  did  not  insist  very  strongly  upon  it, 
but  advised  a  conservative  course,  the  Roman  Liturgy  about  this  time 
began  to  supersede  other  rites  which  had  been  in  use  in  the  West, 
just  as  the  Gallicau  Liturgy  had  influenced  that  of  Rome  and  brought 
about  some  minor  changes  in  the  Leonine  Sa9ramentary.  When 
Gregory  sent  Augustine  to  England  in  597,  he  was  probably  not 
aware  of  the  strength  of  the  scattered  bands  of  Christians  in  the 
hills  nor  of  the  tenacity  with  which  they  clung  to  their  Gailican  Rite. 
Augustine  did  not  enforce  the  Roman  Rite,  and  Theodore  of  Tarsus, 
himself  a  Greek,  made  many  concessions.  And  the  Scottish  and 
Celtic  rites  were  used  in  many  parts  of  the  country  till  1200,  although 
the  Council  of  Clovesho  in  747  prescribed  the  Roman  Ritual  for  all 
England. 

Li  Ireland  the  case  was  similar.  PaUadius  and  Patriqk,  who  had 
been  ordained  by  Celestine  (422 — 432),  probably  brought  the  Roman 
Ritual  to  Ireland.  But  there  were  many  varieties  of  worship,  due  to 
native  usages  which  had  probably  come  from  Gaul.  The  Synod  of 
Tara  in  692  decreed  that  such  usages  should  be  discontinued,  and  an 
extant  Missal  of  the  eighth  century  shows  some  similarity  to  the 
Roman  Liturgy.  But  not  till  the  12th  century  were  the  Roman 
forms  definitely  established,  when  the  Synod  of  Kells,  in  1152,  and 
the  Synod  of  Cashel,  in  1172,  again  passed  the  resolutions. 

So  far  as  Gaul  is  concerned,  the  Roman  Sacramentary  made  its 
way  there  as  early  as  the  sixth  century,  the  two  rites  thus  exerting  a 
mutual  influence.  In  the  next  centuries,  the  monasteries  were  the 
chief  factors  in  promoting  the  Roman  forms,  the  Benedictines  being 
especially  zealous  in  this  respect.  It  is  also  related  of  Chrod^ang, 
bishop  of  Metz,  that  he  introduced  "Romana  cantilena"  after  his  re- 
turn from  Rome.  But  the  real  change  came  at  the  end  of  the  eighth 
century.  Pipin  made  a  law  abolishing  the  Gailican  Liturgy,  and 
Charlemagne,  at  the  instigation  of  Pope  Stephen  (816 — 817),  carried 
the  order  out  most  effectively.  He  introduced  the  Cantus  Romanus 
in  all  churches  of  Gaul  and  wherever  the  Gailican  order  was  used, 
and  made  it  the  duty  of  the  clergy  to  become  thoroughly  familiar 
with  the  Roman  Rite,  "as  our  father  Pipin  of  revered  memory 
earnestly  commanded,  when  he  abolished  the  Gallicau  Form."  Ac- 
cording to  imperial  orders  as  early  as  789  and  805,  every  candidate 
for  the  priesthood  was  obliged  to  be  familiar,  not  only  with  the 
Ordinary  of  the  Mass,  but  with  the  offices  for  all  the  festival  days, 
according  to  the  Roman  Rite. 2"^) 

In  Spain  much  the  same  method  of  procedure  was  adopted. 
Alexander  II  introduced  the  Roman  Liturgy  into  Aragon    (1068^- 


278)  Baeumer,  Geschichte  des  Breviers,  231, 


THE  DEVELOPMENT  OF  THE   BOMAN   LITURGY.  263 

1071),  and  King  Alfonso  VI  secured  its  adoption  ii^  Castille.  Gre- 
gory VII  induced  the  Synod  of  Burgos  in  1085  to  declare  the  Roman 
Liturgy  valid  for  all  Spain.  An  effort  to  restore  the  Mozarabic 
Liturgj'  in  1436  failed.  Its  subsequent  history  will  be  touched  upon 
below.  Thus,  by  the  12th  century,  the  Roman  Liturgy  had  super- 
seded or  supplanted  the  rites  previously  in  use  in  Spain,  France, 
Germany,  England,  Scotland,  Ireland,  and  Italy  with  the  exception 
of  the  archbishopric  of  Milan.  This  fact  was  of  great  advantage  in 
more  than  one  respect,  especially  for  the  Roman  See.  It  produced  a 
uniformity  in  the  order  of  worship  which  made  it  possible  for  a  per- 
son from  any  part  of  the  Church  to  take  part  in  the  worship  of  any 
congregation,  in  whose  midst  he  might  find  himself.  And  it  abolished 
the  abuse  of  the  many  local  festival  days  dedicated  to  some  particular 
saint  of  the  community. 

Partly  as  a  result  of  this  moye,  and  partly  in  consequence  of  the 
change  in  the  church's  doctrine  concerning  the  Eucharist,  there  was 
a  change  in  the  variety  and  number  of  the  service  books.  As  long  as 
the  various  members  of  the  clergy  were  regularly  employed  in  the 
service,  the  lector  reading  the  lections,  the  choir  taking  the  chants, 
either  responsorially  or  antiphonally,  the  deacon  reading  or  chanting 
some  of  the  prayers,  the  priest  having  charge  of  the  Eucharist,  there 
were  various  service  books,  each  one  for  a  special  function.  The  Ordo 
contained  the  rubrics,  the  Sacramentarium  the  sacerdotal  prayers, 
the  Antiphonarium  the  chants,  the  Psalterium  the  Psalms,  the  Comes 
the  lections.  Other  service  books  were  the  Lectionarium,  the  Marty- 
rologium,  the  Hymnarium,  the  Homiliarium,  the  Passionarium,  the 
I>egenda,  the  Graduale,  the  Troparium,  the  Prosarium,  the  Ordinate, 
the  Consuetudinarium,  the  Processionale,  the  Manuale,  and  many 
more.  About  the  eleventh  century,  when  private  masses  were  cele- 
brated with  increasing  frequency,  the  various  liturgical  books  were 
united  in  a  single  service  book,  called  the  Missal.^^s)  At  present,  the 
complete  Missal  includes  three  parts:  1)  Proprium  missarum  de  tem- 
pore, with  the  services  for  each  day  from  Advent  to  the  Great  Sab- 
bath, the  Ordo  Missae,  the  Proper  Prefaces,  the  Canon  Missae,  and 
the  services  from  Easter  to  the  end  of  the  church  year;  2)  Proprium 
missarum  de  Sanctis,  with  the  services  for  saints'  days  and  extra- 
ordinary festivals,  from  January  to  December;  3)  Commune  sanc- 
torum, with  the  common  Mass  for  saints'  days  having  no  Mass  of 
their  own  and  various  votive  masses.  In  a  similar  way  the  material, 
chiefly  from  the  Legenda,  Antiphonarium,  and  Psalterium  was  col- 
lected, with  special  reference  to  the  Ilorae  canonicae,  and  issued  in 
the  form  of  the  Breviary.    The  Breviary  is  usually  divided  into  four 


279)  Kliefoth,  III,  284. 


264  THE  DEVELOPMENT  OF  THE  BOMAK  LITURGY. 

sections  or  books,  one  for  each  quarter  of  the  year,  each  section  con- 
taining six  parts:  1)  Calendar,  Rubrics,  and  Tables;  2)  Psalms, 
Versicles,  and  Responses  of  the  Ferial  Office;  3)  Proprium  de  tem- 
pore: Collects  and  lections  for  Sundays  and  weeks  in  that  part  of  the 
year;  4)  Proprium  de  Sanctis:  the  same  for  the  festivals  of  the  saints 
which  occur  in  that  period;  5)  Commune  sanctorum:  Lections,  col- 
lects, hjrmns,  etc.,  conamon  to  all  saints  for  whom  no  particular  office 
is  appointed;  6)  Offices  for  anniversaries,  for  the  dead,  etc.^*^) 

The  liturgical  work  of  Gregory  practically  determined  the  Roman 
Rite  during  the  Middle  Ages,  there  being  no  great  changes  recorded 
until  the  16th  century.  There  were  some  minor  additions,  especially 
the  elaborate  preparation  of  the  priests  in  the  sacristy,  the  insertion 
of  the  Creed  after  the  Gospel,  and  the  reading  of  the  Prolog  of  the 
Gospel  of  St.  John  at  the  end  of  the  Postcommunion.  An  interesting 
bit  of  liturgical  history  is  that  of  the  Breviary  of  Quignon,  in  the 
16th  century.  It  appears  that  Clement  VII  requested  Cardinal 
Quignon  to  prepare  a  new  Breviary.  Whether  the  Reformation  was 
directly  responsible  or  not,  the  cardinal  omitted  the  greater  part  of 
the  legendary-  and  apocryphal  material  in  the  lections  and  emphasized 
the  necessity  of  reading  more  of  the  canonical  Scriptures.  The  first 
draft  appeared  in  1535,  and  the  Breviarj'  was  completed  in  1539. 
From  the  first,  there  was  a  strong  opposition  to  its  introduction,  and 
even  to-day  the  judgment  is  that  it  is  too  one-sided.^^)  The  Council 
of  Trent  went  on  record  as  favoring  the  ancient  forms,  but  it  omitted 
some  of  the  most  patently  apocryphal  readings.  The  Breviary  of 
Pius  V  in  1568  kept  only  the  lections  for  the  noctum  services  from 
Quignon  and  absolutely  abrogated  all  other  service  books  for  the  two 
centuries  preceding.  But  even  this  Breviary  did  not  meet  with  uni- 
versal approval.  In  1604  Clement  VIII  issued  a  new  Roman  service 
book,  thoroughly  revised  by  a  commission  appointed  for  that  purpose. 
The  final  revision  of  the  Roman  Rite  was  made  under  Urban  VIII, 
and  appeared  in  1634.  This  is  the  form  which  is  now  used  in  the 
Roman  Catholic  Church.  It  may  be  said  to  be  a  recasting  oi  the 
Gregorian  Liturgy,  the  framework  and  much  of  the  liturgical  material 
having  been  retained. 

The  Canon  Missae  or  the  order  of  services  in  the  celebration  of 
the  Mass  in  the  Roman  Church  at  present  is  the  following: 

1)  Initium  missae  solennis.  After  making  the  sign  of  the  cross 
on  forehead  and  chest  and  saying:  In  nomine  Patris  et  Filii  et 
Spiritus  Sancti,  the  priest  prays  the  Introibo-Psalm,  43,  antiphonally 
wdth  his  assistants.    The  Psalm  is  followed  by  the  Gloria  Patri. 


280)  Xeale,  Essays  on  Liturgiology.  I. 

281)  BaeumfT,  Geschichte  ties  Breviers,  392. 


THE   DEVKLOPMEXT  OF  TUE   ROMAN   LITURGY.  265 

2)  Confiteor.  The  priest  kneels  and  makes  a  confession  of  his 
sins  to  ''Almighty  God,  to  the  blessed  Virgin  Mary,  the  blessed  arch- 
angel Michael,  the  blessed  John  the  Baptist,  the  holy  apostles  Peter 
and  Paul,"  etc.  When  the  priest,  in  the  course  of  his  confession, 
utters  the  words:  Mea  culpa,  the  bell  is  struck  and  the  entire  con- 
gregation falls  down  upon  the  knees.  The  absolution  is  then  said  by 
the  assistants,  whereupon  they  confess  and  are  absolved.  Then  fol- 
low the  Thanksgiving  Antiphons  and  the  Collect  for  Purity. 

3)  Introitus.  Only  the  opening  words  of  the  Psalm  for  the  day 
ai*e  prayed,  a  different  one  being  used  every  Smiday,  The  answering 
versicle  is  the  Gloria  Patri. 

4)  Kyrie.  Alternating  Kyrie,  eleison,  Christe  eleison,  Kyrie 
eleison,  sung  nine  times,  the  assistants  answering.  This  Kyrie  is 
thought  1)y  Palmer,  Kliefoth,  and  others  to  be  a  remnant  of  the 
Litany,  transferred  to  this  place  when  the  General  Prayer  lost  its 
place  in  the  service. 

5)  The  Gloria  in  Excelsis.  It  is  intoned  by  the  priest  and  taken 
\ip  by  the  choir.  When  there  is  full  orchestral  accompaniment,  the 
rendition  of  this  hymn  may  be  made  unusually  effective.  It  is  omit- 
ted during  Advent,  and  from  Septuagesima  till  Easter. 

6)  Collecta.  It  is  introduced  with  the  Salutation  and  Response, 
and  marks  the  opening  of  the  second  part  of  the  service,  the  service 
of  the  Word.    On  great  festival  days,  several  collects  may  be  used. 

7)  Epislola.  The  lesson  from  the  Prophets  disappeared  at  Rome 
at  a  very  early  date.  The  Comes  prescribes  the  Lectio  continua  of 
the  Prophets  in  the  ferial  services  at  certain  seasons  of  the  year. 

8)  Graduale  or  Hallelujah.  At  this  point,  in  the  early  Church, 
the  lector  left  the  Epistle  ambo  or  lectern  and  walked  to  the  other 
(north)  side  and  usually  up  the  steps  to  the  Gospel  lectern.  The 
Hallelujah  of  early  days  was  superseded  by  a  short  hymn,  called 
gradual,  or  by  a  prose,  trope,  or  sequence,  consisting  of  a  recitative 
strophe  or  antiphonal  chanting.  From  the  Easter  tropes  of  the  Mid- 
dle Ages  the  Easter  play  arose  and  thus  the  modem  drama  was  bom. 

9)  Evangelium.  The  Gospel  is  preceded  by  the  Munda  cor 
meum,  the  Benediction,  and  the  Salutation.  The  Gospel  was  for- 
merly sung  by  the  officiating  priest.  The  assistants  respond  with 
Laus  tibi,  Christe. 

10)  Credo  Nicaenum.  The  Creed  is  intoned  by  the  <priest  and 
taken  up  by  the  choir.  If  the  proper  accompaniment  is  used,  the 
solemn  orchestral  music  is  most  effective. 

11)  Offertorium.  In  the  primitive  Church,  the  offering  of  bread 
and  wine  took  place  at  this  point.  At  present,  it  is  used  to  present 
the  bread  and  the  wine  mixed  with  water,  as  an  offering  to  God,  the 


266  THE  DEVELOPMENT  OF  THE  ROMAN   LITURGY. 

priest  meanwhile  praying  for  his  own  sins  and  for  those  of  all  Chris- 
tians- There  is  a  short  Invocation,  followed  by  the  Lavabo  (Ps.  26, 
6 — 12)  and  the  offering  of  the  oblation. 

12)  Secreta.  One  or  more  prayers  are  murmured,  varying  with 
the  day,  and  the  priest's  voice  does  not  become  audible  until  the  final 
words:    Per  omnia  saecula  saeculorum. 

13)  Praefatio.  It  opens  with  the  Salutation,  Sursum  corda,  and 
continues  the  Vere  dignum  with  the  Proper  Preface,  the  choir  re- 
sponding with  the  Sanctus. 

14)  Canon  Missae.  In  secret  prayer,  the  priest  makes  an  offer- 
ing of  the  unbloody  sacrifice  on  the  altar,  adds  the  commemoration 
for  the  living  and  the  dead,  the  Pro  defunctis  being  spoken  after  the 
Institution  or  Consecration,  and  after  the  Elevation  and  Adoration 
of  both  the  bread  and  the  cup.  By  this  time  the  choir  has  usually 
finished  the  Sanctus. 

15)  Praeparatio  ad  Communionem.  The  priest  chants  the  Lord's 
Prayer,  and  adds,  to  the  seventh  petition,  a  prayer  urging  the  inter- 
cession of  the  saints.  He  breaks  the  wafer  over  the  cup  at  the  words : 
Per  eundem.  Again  breaking  one  of  the  pieces,  he  throws  the  par- 
ticle in  the  cup  and  says  a  secret  prayer  (Immissio  in  calicem). 

16)  Preces  ante  Communionem.  These  consist  of  the  Agnus  Dei 
and  several  collects. 

17)  Sumtio.  The  priest  takes  bread  and  wine  himself  and  then 
administers  the  bread,  if  there  are  communicants,  with  the  words: 
Corpus  Domini  custodiat.  .  . 

18)  Communio.  The  reading  of  Video  caelos  apertos  or  some 
other  verse,  a  remnant  of  the  Psalm  which  was  formerly  sung  during 
the  distribution. 

19)  Postcommunio.  Salutation,  followed  by  a  collect,  and  the 
Ite,  missa  est. 

20)  Finis  Missae.  A  secret  prayer  of  the  priest:  Placeat  tibi, 
sancta  Trinitas,  obsequium  servitutis  meae.  .  .  . 

21)  Benedictio.  Benedieat  vos  omnipotens  Deus,  Pater,  Filius, 
et  Spiritus  Sanctus. 

22)  Evangelium.  John  1,  1 — 14,  upon  which  the  assistants  an- 
swer: Deo  gratias.282) 


282)  Ijochuer,  Der  Haupt<jottes<lien.^t,  14.  15;  Daniel,  Codex  Uturgicus, 
I,  48 — 112;  Kliefoth,  Die  urspnieugliche  Gottesdienstordnung,  III,  296 — 
442;  Alt,  Der  kirchliche  Gottesdieust,  239—257;  Horn,  Liturgies,  109—119. 


ANCIENT  LITURGIES   OF  VARIOUS  BRANCHES.  267 

CHAPTER   5. 
Ancient  Liturgies  of  Various  Branches  of  the  Church  in  Use  at  the 

Present  Time. 

We  have,  in  chapter  III,  followed  the  history  and  development 
of  the  various  Eastern  and  Western  liturgies,  beginning  with  the 
nuclei  or  parent  orders,  and  tracing  the  subsequent  changes  and  their 
influence  under  various  conditions  to  the  beginning  of  the  medieval 
period.  Since,  however,  many  of  these  orders  are  in  use  at  the  pres- 
ent time,  a  short  summary  of  their  more  recent  history  and  of  the 
structure  of  their  principal  service  may  aid  in  the  proper  orientation 
and  also  in  the  appreciation  of  their  relative  importance. 

Turning  our  attention  first  to  the  East,  we  find  that  circum- 
stances have  rendered  the  Constantinopolitan  rites  sole  possessors  of 
the  Orthodox  churches,  not  only  in  Greece  and  Russia,  but  also  in 
Asia  Minor  and  in  Egypt.  As  the  Liturgy  of  St.  Basil  was  a  recast 
of  that  of  St.  James,  so  the  Liturgy  of  St.  Chrysostom  is  an  abbrevia- 
tion and  new  edition  of  St.  Basil's.  Li  the  ninth  centurj',  they  were 
still  both  in  use  and  had  the  following  parts  in  common:  Prothesis 
with  proskomide,  Enarxis;  Mass  of  the  Catechumens:  The  Little 
Entrance,  Lections,  Prayers,  Dismissals;  Mass  of  the  Faithful:  Pray- 
ers of  the  Faithful,  the  Great  Entrance,  Kiss  of  Peace,  Creed, 
Anaphora  —  Thanksgiving  (Salutation,  Sursum,  Preface,  Trisagion), 
Secreta,  with  Words  of  Institution,  Invocation,  Intercession,  Bles- 
sing, Lord's  Prayer,  Inclination,  Connnunion,  Thanksgiving,  Dis- 
missal, Final  Prayer  in  Sacristy.283)  A  close  examination  reveals 
that  there  is  little  actual  diflference  between  the  two  liturgies,  excep- 
ting that  the  form  of  Basil  is  longer,  the  Intercession  being  the  only 
part  in  which  Chrysostom  has  a  longer  prayer.  It  will  be  noted,  also, 
that  the  ancient  division  of  the  service  into  the  Missa  Catechumaio- 
rum  and  Missa  Fidelium  is  still  observed.  But  this  division  is  not 
marked  much  more  emphatically  than  that  of  the  Proanaphora  and 
the  Anaphora,  the  former  ending  with  the  Kiss  of  Peace  and  the 
Creed,  just  before  the  Sanctus. 

So  far  as  the  present  Orthodox  Oriental  Liturgy  is  concerned, 
the  Liturgy  of  St.  Basil  is  said  on  all  Sundays  in  Lent  except  Palm 
Sunday,  also  on  Maundy  Thursday,  Easter  Eve,  the  vigils  of  Christ- 
mas and  Epiphany,  and  the  Feast  of  St.  Basil  (Jan.  1).  The  Liturgy 
of  St.  Chrysostom  is  prescribed  for  every  other  day  in  the  year.  The 
latter  thus  holds  the  position  of  greater  importance.  It  has  been  en- 
riched especially  by  the  addition  of  rubrics  which  give  to  the  chief 
service  the  character  of  a  great  symbolico-liturgical  drama,  repre- 


283)  Brightman,  Liturgies  Eastern  and  Western,  I,  309 — 344. 


268  ANCIENT  LITURGIES   OF  VARIOUS  BRANCHES. 

seuting  the  entire  work  of  redemption.  If  one  takes  up  the  Vesper 
service  of  the  Vigils  and  continues  his  examination  to  the  end  of  the 
Eucharistic  service,  he  will  be  able  to  witness  the  entire  story  of  the 
salvation  of  mankind,  from  the  creation  of  the  world  to  the  ascension 
of  Christ.  A  full  description  of  the  Eucharistic  service  is  evidently 
impossible  within  the  limits  of  a  short  chapter,  but  the  following 
summary  includes  the  chief  parts:  The  Preparation  of  the  Ministers. 
This  consists  of  a  number  of  prayers,  including  the  Trisagion  and 
the  Lord's  Prayer,  the  Kyrie  eleison  and  the  Gloria  Patri.  The  ves- 
ting of  the  bishop  at  the  thysiasterion  or  ambon  is  accompanied  by 
a  running  comment  of  Scriptural  references.  After  the  ceremony  of 
the  Lavabo  (Ps.  26)  the  Prothesis  takes  place,  with  conunemoration 
of  saints.  The  Censing  introduces  the  Enarxis,  with  intercessory 
prayers  and  a  litany,  Ps.  103,  and  a  doxology.  Mass  of  the  Catechu- 
mens. In  the  Little  Entrance  the  book  of  the  Gospel  is  brought  forth 
from  the  holy  place  to  the  nave  of  the  church  with  appropriate  pray- 
ers. The  Lectfons  include  the  Apostle,  to  which  the  choir  responds 
with  Alleluia,  and  the  Gospel,  which  is  read  by  the  deacon.  This  is 
followed  by  Prayers  in  the  form  of  a  litany,  and  then  come  the  Dis- 
missals. They  no  longer  actually  dismiss  any  attendants,  but  serve 
to  remind  all  those  present  of  the  necessity  of  true  faith.  Mass  of 
the  Faithful.  Prayers  of  the  Eaithful  for  peace,  responded  to  with 
a  Kyrie  eleison  by  the  choir,  one  for  each  petition;  the  Great  En- 
trance with  the  Eucharistic  elements,  followed  by  a  prayer  for  ac- 
ceptance ;  Kiss  of  Peace ;  Xicene  Creed ;  Anaphora :  Thanksgiving 
(Salutation,  ano  schomen,  axion  kai  dikaion,  Trisagion)  ;  Invocation, 
with  secret  prayer;  Intercession,  with  diptychs  for  dead  and  living; 
Lord's  Prayer  by  choir  or  people;  Inclination,  Elevation;  Manual 
Acts  and  Communion,  first  of  the  priests,  then  of  the  people;  Thanks- 
giving, Dismissal,  with  antiphonal  singing  and  a  prayer  of  blessing 
by  the  priest;  Eulogia  or  Benedicamus;  Dismissal  of  Ministers.2^) 
So  far  as  the  present  Armeno-Gregorian  Rite  or  the  Armenian 
Liturgy  is  concerned,  it  sprang  from  the  Liturgy  of  St.  Basil.  It  is 
used  in  Armenia  almost  exclusively,  and  since  this  church  is  at 
variance  with  the  Eastern  Orthodox  Church,  having  been  separated 
from  the  latter  since  595  on  account  of  Monophysite  errors,  their  own 
account  refers  the  liturgy  to  Gregorius  Illuminator.  Mass  is  read 
only  on  Sunday,  Thursday,  and  Saturday,  these  being  the  days  upon 
which  fasting  is  not  i)ermitted  The  language  is  no  longer  under- 
stood by  all  the  people,  but  only  by  such  as  have  studied  the  Old 
Armenian  church  language.    Xeale  states  that  the  Armenian  Church 


284)  Brightman,  I,  352—399;    Alt,  Der  kirchliche  Gottesdienst,  203- 
237. 


ANCIENT  LITURGIES  OF  VARIOUS  BRANCHES.  269 

has  borrowed  much  from  Rome,  a  fact  which  appears  especially  in 
the  ferial  services  at  terce,  sext,  and  none.  The  office  of  the  Pro  thesis 
and  Eucharistic  service  has  the  following  parts:  A.  Officium  tes 
protheseos :  The  Vesting,  during  which  the  choir  sings  the  hymn  of 
the  vesting;  Lavabo  (Ps.  26,  6)  at  the  foot  of  the  altar  steps,  in  the 
middle  of  the  church,  responded  to  with  the  Gloria  Patri ;  Confiteor 
and  Absolution;  Psalm  100  antiphonally,  with  Gloria  Patri;  Collect; 
Psalm  44  with  Gloria  Patri;  Prayers  to  the  Holy  Ghost;  Prothesis 
of  wafer  and  wine;  Hymn  of  the  church':  Rejoice  greatly,  O  Zion; 
Enarxis  with  Collect  and  Blessing;  Psalm  and  Hymn  of  the  Day; 
Collect  of  the  Entrance;  B.  Missa  Catechumenorum:  The  Little 
Entrance ;  Trisagion ;  Prayer  for  Peace ;  Lections  of  Prophet,  Apostle, 
responded  to  with  Alleluia,  and  Gospel,  with  Glory  be  to  Thee,  O 
Lord  our  God;  C.  Missa  Fidelium:  Nicene  Creed,  Litany  Prayers; 
Liclination,  with  Prayer  for  Peace;  Great  Entrance;  Sanctus  while 
priest  and  deacon  say  Psalm  24;  Prayer,  Kiss  of  Peace;  Anaphora 
(Thanksgiving,  Sursum,  Preface,  Trisagion,  Words  of  Institution)  ; 
Invocation,  Intercession;  Blessing;  Lord's  Prayer;  Inclination; 
Fraction,  Commixture  and  Communion,  during  which  hymn. is  sung; 
Postcommunion  with  Thanksgiving;  Descent  from  altar;  Gospel, 
John  1,  1 — 14;  Dismissal;  Eulogia.285) 

The  Nestoriam  liturgies  are  usually  placed  into  the  Great  Orien- 
tal group,  all  of  which  are  derived  from  the^Rite  of  St.  James,  but 
Xeale  has  ascribed  to  them  a  separate  origin  and  development,  with 
a  Liturgy  of  St.  Thaddeus  of  Edessa  as  basis.  Its  history  up  to  the 
Middle  Ages  has  been  traced  above.  So  far  as  the  present  use  is  con- 
cerned, the  normal  form  of  worship  is  the  Liturgy  of  the  Apostles 
Adaeus  and  Maris.  The  Office  of  Theodore  the  Interpreter  is,  as 
Neale  thinks,  a  modification  of  this,  which  may  fairly  be  attributed 
to  that  voluminous  author.  "It  is  used  from  the  first  Sunday  of  the 
Annunciation,  which  corresponds  to  our  first  Sunday  in  Advent,  to 
Palm  Sunday,  and  therefore  for  more  than  a  third  part  of  the  year. 
The  Liturgy  of  Nestorius  is  a  graft  of  the  Constantinopolitan  on  the 
old  Eastern  rite,  imdoubtedly  composed  by  some  Xestorian  refugee 
after  the  Council  of  Ephesus.  It  is  used  on  the  Epiphany,  Easter, 
the  Vigils  of  St.  John  the  Baptist,  and  of  the  Greek  Doctors;  and  on 
the  Wednesday  of  the  week  called  the  Supplication  of  Nineveh."  286) 
The  present  liturgy  of  the  Nestorians,  including  the  Anaphora  of 
SS.  Adai  and  Maris,  includes  the  following  principal  parts:  The 
Preparation  of  the  Ohlation:  The  making  of  the  loaves,  censing,  etc., 
Prothesis  of  bread  and  wine  with  Trisagion  and  various  Prayers. 
Order  of  the  Apostles:  Enarxis  (In  the  name  of  the  Father,  Gloria 


285)  Alt,  366—373;   Brightman,  I,  412—457;   Daniel,  IV,  451—481. 

286)  Neale,  General  Introduetion,  III,  317 — 335. 


270  ANCIENT  LITUBGIES  OF  VARIOUS  BRANCHES. 

in  excelsis,  Lord's  Prayer,  Prayer  of  the  Anthem,  Anthem  of  the 
Sanctuarj',  Lavabo,  Gloria  Patri,  Prayer)  ;  Mass  of  the  Catechumens : 
Lift  up  your  voice.  Prayer,  Lections  of  Old  Testament,  Acts,  two 
Prayers  before  the  Apostle,  Apostle,  Gospel  introduced  with  Halle- 
lujah and  Prayer,  Anthem  of  the  Gospel;  Mass  of  the  Faithful: 
Prayers  in  the  form  of  a  Litany,  Liclination,  Offertory,  Anthem  of 
the  Mysteries  with  Gloria  Patri,  Creed,  Preparation  for  the  Anaphora 
with  Secreta  of  priest,  Diptychs,  Kiss  of  Peace,  Anaphora  (Thanks- 
giving with  Sursum,  Dignum,  Trisagion,  Listitution,  Intercession, 
Invocation,  Fraction  and  Consignation,  Blessing  "The  grace  of  our 
Lord,"  Comminution,  Lord's  Prayer,  Elevation,  Communion) ;  Post- 
communion  with  Thanksgiving,  Dismissal,  Eulogia,  and  Prayers.^s") 

The  Syrian  Jacobites  came  into  existence  after  the  Council  of 
Chalcedon  (451  A.  D.),  when  the  Eutychians  were  excommvmicated. 
They  are  Monophysites,  and  are  placed  on  the  same  level  with  the 
members  of  the  Egj-ptian  Church.  There  have  been  few  changes  in 
their  liturgy,  so  far  as  structure  is  concerned,  but  many  of  the  pray- 
ers have  been  lengthened  very  much.  Their  complete  liturgy,  in- 
cluding the  Anaphora  of  St.  Jaines,  as  now  in  use,  contains  the  fol- 
lowing parts:  Preparation  of  the  Celebrant  with  Psalm  51,  Vesting, 
Preparation  of  the  Altar  by  placing  paten  and  chalice,  lighting 
taper,  etc.,  Prothesis  closing  service  of  penitence  with  Lord's  Prayer; 
Second  Service  of  Kurbono :  Gloria  Patri,  Offertory,  Prayers  with 
Psalm  93  and  Commemoration  Prayer;  Mass  of  the  Catechumens: 
Censing,  Lections  of  Old  Testament,  Apostles,  responded  to  with 
Hallelujah,  Prayer  before  Gospel,  Gospel,  Salutation;  Mass  of  the 
Faithful:  Prayers,  Creed,  Lavatory,  Kiss  of  Peace,  Inclination, 
Prayer  of  the  Veil,  Anaphora  (Thanksgiving  with  Salutation,  Sur- 
sum, Preface,  Trisagion,  Institution;  Invocation,  Intercession  for 
Living  and  Dead,  Blessing,  Fraction  and  Consignation,  Lord's  Prayer, 
Inclination,  Elevation,  Communion,  the  priest  taking  the  Eucharist 
first,  giving  the  wine  with  a  spoon)  ;  Postcommunion  with  Thanks- 
giving, Inclination,  Dismissal;  Ablutions,  Eulogia.288) 

When  the  attempt  was  made,  in  the  sixth  and  seventh  centuries, 
to  effect  a  compromise  between  the  orthodox  doctrine  and  that  of  the 
Monophysites,  the  result  was  another  sect,  that  of  the  Monothelites, 
who  rallied  around  Johannes  Maron  whom  they  revere  as  their  first 
patriarch,  and  after  whom  they  are  called  Maronites.  They  were  ex- 
communicated at  the  sixth  Ecumenic  Council  in  Constantinople 
(680  A.  D.).  They  are  practically  confined  to  the  region  of  the 
Lebanon  and,    to  a  degree,    enjoy  political  independence.     Their  li- 


287)  Brightman,  Liturgies  Eastern  and  Western,  I,  247 — 305;  Daniel, 
Codex  liturgicus,  IV,  171 — 193;  Alt,  Der  kirchliche  Oottesdienst,  372.  373. 

288)  Brightman,  I,  69—110. 


ANCIENT  LITURGIES  OF  VAEIODS  BRANCHES.  271 

turgy,  which  resembles  the  Coptic,  is  in  Syriac,  but  the  readings 
from  the  Gospels  are  in  Arabic,  the  tongue  which  is  now  spoken 
by  them. 

The  Liturgy  of  the  Egyptian  Church,  as  stated  above,  is  divided 
into  two  rites,  the  Coptic  or  Sahidic  and  the  Abyssinian  or  Ethiopic. 
Both  churches  are  Monophysite  in  doctrine  and  have  lost  a  great  deal 
of  the  vigor  in  doctrine  and  practise  which  characterizes  a  live  ortho- 
doxy. Alt  states  that  the  Coptic  clergy  use  a  small  instrument  on 
the  order  of  a  drum,  which  is  beaten  during  the  services  with  in- 
ci-easiug  vigor  and  loudness,  while  the  attendants  stamp  upon  ,the 
ground  and  raise  their  voices  ever  higher,  until  the  singing  ends  in 
a  burst  of  hideous  noise.289)  The  Liturgy  of  the  Coptic  Jacobites, 
including  the  Anaphora  of  St.  Mark  and  St.  Cyril,  as  modified  accor- 
ding to  the  Sahidic  Ecclesiastical  Canon,  is  represented  by  the  fol- 
lowing summary:  the  Prothesis,  in  which  the  bread  is  referred  to  as 
the  Lamb,  the  choir  singing  Psalm  74  and  Psalm  116;  Enarxis  with 
Salutation,  Prayer,  also  over  the  Oblation,  Absolution;  Mass  of  the 
Catechumens;  Censing  during  secret  prayers;  Lections  of  Apostle 
Paul,  followed  by  Prayer,  Catholic  Epistle  (of  James)  and  Prayer 
after  the  Catholicon,  Acts  of  the  Apostles;  Trisagion,  Gospel,  pre- 
ceded by  Prayer,  and  followed  by  Alleluia  and  Prayer,  Sermon ;  Mass 
of  the  Faithful:  Prayer  of  the  Veil,  the  Prayers  in  form  of  a  Litany, 
Creed,  Kiss  of  Peace;  Anaphora  (Thanksgiving  with  Salutation, 
ano,  axion.  Preface;  Intercession,  very  long,  with  response  Kyrie 
eleison;  Thanksgiving  continued  with  Words  of  Listitution ;  Invoca- 
tion; Consignation;  Fraction  and  Lord's  Prayer;  Inclination;  Ele- 
vation; Consignation  and  Commixture;  Communion);  Postcom- 
munion  with  Thanksgiving,  Inclination,  and  Dismissal  with  Prayer 
of  Imposition  of  Hands. ^^o) 

The  Liturgy  of  the  Abyssinian  Jacobites,  commonly  known  as 
the  Ethiopic  Liturgj',  does  not  differ  greatly  from  that  of  Northern 
Egypt.  Schermann  has  shown  that  the  influence  of  the  Syrian 
Church,  between  the  fourth  and  sixth  centuries,  determined  some 
changes  in  the  liturgy  which  eventually  caused  the  difference  between 
the  Sahidic  and  Ethiopic  rites,  especially  in  the  prayers.291)  Accor- 
ding to  Mercer,  the  present  Ethiopic  Liturgy  may  be  summarized  in 
the  following  form:  Preparation  of  the  Ministers..  Prayer  of  Peni- 
tence, Psalm  of  David  (25,  61,  102,  103,  130,  131),  Antiphon  and 
Hallelujah;  Prayer  for  cleansing,  Prayer  before  withdrawing  the  veil 
with  Doxology,  Prayer  of  Basil;  Prayer  over  all  the  vessels  of  the 
church,  Prayer  of  John,  Prayer  over  the  Paten;  Vesting  with  Prayer 


289)  Dei-  kirchliche  Gotiesdienst,  373. 

290)  Brightumu,  I,  144—188. 

291)  Aegyptische  Abendmahlsliturgieen  des  ersten  Jahrtausends. 


272  ANCIENT  LITURGIES  OF  VARIOUS  BRANCHES. 

of  vesting;  long  Prayer  addressed  to  communicants  with  reference  to 
Institution,  Prayer  after  withdrawal  of  veil  before  Oblation,  Halle- 
lujah; Prayer  over  the  Masob  (ciborium)  with  sign  of  cross;  Prayer 
at  the  tabot.  Pouring  of  Wine  into  Chalice,  Prayer  over  Paten,  Prayer 
over  Chalice;  Salutations  and  Responses,  concluded  with  Doxology 
and  Hallelujah;  Enarxis.  Salutation,  Prayer  of  Thanksgiving, 
Prayer  in  behalf  of  those  that  bring  oblations;  Salutation,  Prayer  of 
the  Anaphora;  Admonition  of  the  Apostles,  Covering  of  the  Bread; 
Absolution  of  the  Son ;  Litany ;  Little  Entrance.  Censing,  introduced 
with  short  Prayers  to  the  three  persons  of  the  Trinity  and  inter- 
spersed with  Prayers;  Salutation,  Lections,  including  Epistle  of 
St.  Paul,  Catholic  Epistle,  Acts  of  the  Apostles,  all  introduced  and 
responded  to  with  the  proper  Prayers;  Incense  and  Trisagion,  with 
casting  of  incense  and  ascription.  Prayer,  Hail,  Trisagion,  Hail  Mary, 
Blessing  and  final  Ascription;  Gospel,  introduced  with  a  series  of 
Salutations,  Prayer  to  Christ,  and  other  Rites,  and  special  responses 
after  each  section  of  the  reading.  Dismissal;  Mass  of  the  Faithful. 
Salutation,  Prayers  for  the  Faithful,  responded  to  with  Kyrie;  Pre- 
paration for  Creed;  Lavabo  with  Prayers;  Kiss  of  Peace;  Nicene 
Creed  (without  the  filioque) ;  Anaphora :  Thanksgiving  (Salutation, 
Sursum),  Intercession,  Sanctus,  Institution,  Invocation,  Inclination, 
Manual  Acts,  Consignation  and  Communion;  Thanksgiving,  Incli- 
nation with  imposition  of  hands.  Dismissal,  Eulogia.292) 

As  to  other  liturgies  which  belong  to  the  Oriental  group,  they 
are  of  little  importance,  none  of  them  having  had  a  separata  origin 
or  a  conspicuous  development.  The  so-called  Malabar  Liturgy,  used 
in  Malabar  and  Ceylon,  was  a  branch  of  the  Chaldean  or  Nestorian 
family.  When  the  Thomas  Christians  were  won  for  Rome  in  the 
16th  century,  Menezes,  in  1599,  reformed  their  liturgy  to  conform 
with  the  Roman  Rite.  But  in  the  latter  part  of  the  17th  century,  the 
influence  of  the  Jacobite  patriarchs  of  Antioch  again  gained  the 
ascendency,  and  the  Thomas  Christians  have  returned  to  the  use  of 
Nestorian  rites,  The  influence  of  the  Roman  Liturgy  upon  that  of 
the  Jacobites,  whom  Eugene  TV  won  over  in  1441,  and  upon  the 
United  Armenians  in  Turkey,  Russia,  and  Austria  is  plainly  notice- 
able in  certain  additions,  but  not  so  prominent  as  might  have  been 
expected.  The  Maronites  have  nominally  been  under  the  jurisdiction 
of  Rome  since  1445,  but  with  the  express  proviso  that  doctrine  and 
cultus  should  not  be  affected  by  the  union.293) 

Of  the  early  liturgies  in  the  West,  only  two  remain,  the  Ambro- 
sian  and  the  Mozarabic.  An  interesting  story  is  told  for  the  reten- 
tion of  the  Ambrosian  Rite.    When  Charlemagne  was  engaged  in  in- 


292)  Mercer,  The  Ethiopio  Liturgy,  151—373;  Brightman,  I,  194—244. 

293)  Alt.  Das  christliche  Kirchenjahr,  180.  181. 


ANCIENT  LITURGIES  OF  VARIOUS  BRANCHES.  273 

troducing  the  Koman  forms  into  France,  he  was  very  anxious  to  have 
also  Milan  make  the  change.  But  as  the  bishops  whose  counsel  was 
sought  in  this  matter  were  unable  to  decide,  they  determined  to  leave 
the  judgment  to  God.  Accordingly,  they  sealed  the  service  books  of 
both  rites  and  left  them  on  the  altar  of  St.  Peter,  determining  to  use 
the  one  which  would  be  found  open.  When  the  appointed  day  came, 
both  books  opened  in  a  mysterious  manner,  and  the  bishops  came  to 
the  conclusion  that  both  rites  must  be  equally  acceptable  to  God  and 
that  therefore  the  Ambrosian  might  be  retained  in  Milan,  while  the 
rest  of  the  Occident  should  adopt  the  Roman  use.  However  credible 
the  account  of  Landulph  may  be  otherwise,  it  is  much  more  probable 
that  pious  veneration  of  the  name  and  work  of  Ambrosius  determined 
the  Milanese  church  in  the.  retention  of  the  ancient  rite.  When  the 
Koman  Rite  was  being  revised,  during  the  period  of  the  Tridentinum, 
the  question  again  confronted  the  hierarchy  of  the  patriarchate,  but 
the  Synod  of  the  Diocese  of  Milan  in  1568  decided  to  keep  the  ancient 
form  of  worship.  A  revised  Psalterium  was  issued  in  1574,  the  other 
service  books  appearing  later.  In  1575  the  rite  was  extended  to  those 
parishes  of  the  diocese  where  it  had  not  yet  been  in  use.294)  The  last 
revisions  have  very  naturally  been  influenced  very  strongly  by  the 
Roman  Rite,  so  that  one  may  say  that  only  the  nucleus  or  core  of  the 
present  Milanese  use  is  Ambrosian.  It  will  therefore  be  sufficient 
merely  to  point  out  the  principal  points  of  difference  between  the  two 
orders  of  the  Mass.  The  Ambrosian  begins  with  the  Psalm  "Miserere 
mei,  Deus"  in  place  of  the  "In  nomine."  The  first  part  of  the  In- 
troibo  is  omitted,  but  the  Judica  me  is  included,  also  the  Confiteor. 
The  Adjutorium  follows  the  Absolution  instead  of  preceding  it.  The 
Ingressam  of  Milan  agrees  with  the  Introitus  of  Rome.  The  Gloria 
in  excelsis  is  preceded  by  Salutation  and  Oratio  super  populum,  and 
after  it  comes  the  Kyrie.  There  is  a  Prophetic  Lection  with  Psalm, 
then  Epistola  with  Hallelujah  and  Versus,  but  not  the  long  Tractus 
and  Antiphons  of  Rome.  The  Munda  cor  introducing  the  Gospel  is 
short.  It  is  followed  by  Kyrie  and  an  Antiphona  post  evangelium. 
Instead  of  the  Creed  we  next  have  Salutation,  and  then  Oratio  super 
sindonem.  followed  by  a  Prothesis  of  the  bread  and  the  chalice  as  an 
oblation.  Then  the  Offerenda  are  said  and  after  that  the  Creed. 
There  is  an  agreement  of  the  two  rites  again  at  the  Orationes  super 
oblata,  Preface,  Tersanctus,  Canon  with  Commemoratio  pro  vivis, 
Institutio,  and  Commemoratio  pro  defunctis.  Instead  of  the  Eleva- 
tio  there  is  a  Fractio  with  the  Antiphon  called  Confractorium.  In 
the  Pater  noster,  the  Pax,  the  Agnus  Dei,  and  the  Distribution,  the 


294)  Baeumer,  GcschicJite  des  Breviers,  532.  533. 
Kretzmann,  Christian  Art.  18 


274  AUCIEKT  LITUBGIES  OF  VAKIOUS  BRANCHES. 

two  rites  agree,  in  most  cases  verbally.  Instead  of  the  Video  caelos 
apertos,  the  Ambrosian  has  the  Antiphona  Transitorixun.  The  Post- 
communion  is  the  same,  but  the  Milanese  form  of  Dismissal  is  Pro- 
cedamus  in  pace.  The  lesson  John  1,  1 — 14  is  used  as  in  the  Roman 
Rite.295) 

As  for  the  Mozarabic  Liturgy,  the  events  of  the  eleventh  century 
did  not  determine  its  fate  for  all  time.  It  had  been  declared  orthodox 
at  Mantua  in  1064,  a  few  years  before  it  was  abolished  in  Aragon, 
and  there  were  always  some  members  of  the  clergy  that  were  acquain- 
ted with  it  and  to  whom  the  sonorous  fulness  of  its  prayers  appealed. 
An  effort  to  restore  its  use  in  1436  failed,  but  Cardinal  Ximenes  of 
Toledo  did  not  rest  until  he  had  been  granted  jtermission  to  \ise  the 
Mozarabic  rites  in  Toledo  and  Salamanca.  That  was  in  1500  to  1502. 
The  permission  still  holds  for  the  cathedral,  the  Ximenian  chapel, 
and  several  oratories  of  Toledo,  and  one  each  at  Salamanca  and  Val- 
ladolid.  Migne  has  reprinted  the  entire  liturgy.^^*)  The  order  of 
the  Mass  seems  to  have  been  influenced  to  a  great  extent  by  the  Ro- 
man Rite,  as  an  examination  of  the  chief  parts  shows.  The  opening 
of  the  service  in  the  two  rites  is  the  same  till  after  the  Absolution. 
At  this  point  the  Mozarabic  has  a  rubric  directing  the  priest  to  kiss 
the  altar  and  the  cross  upon  it  with  the  words :  Salve  crux  pretiosa. . ., 
upon  which  follow  four  Collects  After  the  Introit  comes  the  Gloria 
in  excelsis.  The  Lections  include  the  Prophet  with  following  Psalm, 
the  Epistle,  and  the  Gospel,  without  the  usual  liturgical  embellish- 
ments. After  the  Gospel,  the  Salutation  introduces  the  Prayer  of 
Oblation  with  the  Manual  Acts,  and  the  choir  sings  the  Sacrifieium, 
whereupon  the  Missa  Catechumenorum  ends  with  a  Prayer  of  Incli- 
nation. The  Missa  proprie  sic  dicta  opens  with  the  Salutation  and 
Prayer  de  Tempore,  upon  which  the  choir  sings  the  Trisagion.  There 
are  a  number  of  Antiphons,  referring  to  the  oblation  and  commemo- 
ration, followed  by  the  CoUectio  i)ost  nomina.  There  is  a  section 
devoted  to  the  Kiss  of  Peace.  The  Illatio  is  a  long  Praefatio,  at 
whose  conclusion  the  Tersanctus  is  sung.  The  Canon  Missae  is  very 
short,  containing  mainly  the  words  of  Institution,  an  Oratio  i)08t 
pridie,  the  Xicene  Creed,  the  Lord's  Prayer,  and  the  Sancta  Sanctis. 
Instead  of  the  Agnus  Dei  the  Mozarabic  has  Benedictio.  During 
Communion  the  choir  sings  the  Gustate  et  videte,  and  at  the  conclu- 
'  sion  Refecti  Christi  corpore.  The  Postcommunio  is  introduced  with 
the  words  Sollemnia  completa  sunt  or  Ite,  missa  est.  .  .  .  The  Salve 
regina.  .  .  .  and  the  Concede  nos  famulos  tuos  close  the  service.*^") 


295)  Daniel,  Codex  lititrgicus,  I,  48 — 112;  Alt,  Der  kircJUiche  Oottes- 
dienst,  374—376. 

296)  Patrologia  latina,  84.  85.  86. 

297)  Palmer,    Liturgicae   Origines,   I,   Ch^ter   10;     Alt,   376—380; 
DimVl.  T,  40—113. 


TlIK   EFFKC'J"   OF  THE  REFORMATION   ON  THE   LITURGY.         275 

CHAPTER  6. 
The   Effect  of  the   Reformation  on  the   Liturgy. 

"Our  people  are  wrongfully  accused  of  having  abolished  the  Mass. 
i'or  this  is  evident  (speaking  without  self-glorification)  that  Mass  is 
lield  with  us  with  greater  devotion  and  earnestness  than  with  our 

adversaries Thus  also  in  the  public  ceremonies  of  the  Mass  no 

notable  change  has  been  made,  but  that  in  a  few  places  German 
hymns  (for  the  purpose  of  teaching  the  people  and  giving  them  prac- 
tise) are  sung  in  addition  to  the  Latin  anthems,  since  all  ceremonies 
should  mainly  serve  for  the  purpose  that  the  people  may  learn  what 
they  ought  to  know  in  regard  to  Christ."  298)  It  would  be  hard  to 
find  two  sentences  which  in  so  few  words  express  the  principle  of  the 
Reformation  with  regard  to  its  outer  form  than  this  passage  from 
the  24th  Article  of  the  Augsburg  Confession.  In  them  the  purpose 
of  Luther  and  his  coworkers  to  go  about  in  a  conservative  and  con- 
structive manner  in  the  Reformation  of  the  Church  is  clearly  crystal- 
lized. Luther  had  no  intention  of  tearing  down  and  destroying  with- 
out regard  to  history  and  custom,  but  aimed  to  edify  and  build  up. 
He  insisted  upon  correcting  the  abuses  that  were  based  upon  false 
doctrines,  but  he  never  used  iconoclastic  measures,  preferring  the 
method  of  instructing  the  people  as  to  the  reason  for  the  change  and 
then  going  about  the  proposed  alteration  in  a  quiet  manner.  And 
whenever  there  was  a  reason  for  retaining  a  good  ceremony,  or  one 
which  was  not  in  itself  sinful  or  dangerous,  Luther  gave  his  reasons 
for  such  retention.  This  fact  redounds  all  the  more  to  the  credit  of 
Luther,  since  he  was  by  nature  quick  to  think,  speak,  and  act. 

As  a  matter  of  fact,  even  the  word  Mass,  so  far  as  Luther  was 
concerned,  savored  of  Romanism  and  false  doctrine.  Li  one  passage 
he  derives  it  from  the  Hebrew  word  mausim,  Dan.  11,  38,  and  gives 
the  following  explanation:  "Missa  or  Mass  comes  from  the  Hebrew 
word  maosim,  which  means  gathered  alms,  contribution,  or  tax,  for 
the  sake  of  the  priests  or  the  poor  people."  299)  In  another  passage 
he  writes:  "In  my  Hebrew  language  I  find  that  mas  means  per- 
centage or  tax  which  is  anniially  given  to  the  government,  as  Glen.  49, 
15 :  Isachar  l>eeame  a  servant  unto  tribute.  And  in  the  books  of  the 
Kings  it  is  often  stated  that  countries  and  peoples  were  compelled  to 
pay  tribute  to  the  children  of  Israel;  for  which  reason  Moses  in  one 
place,  Deut.  16,  10,  calls  Missa  not  the  sacrifice,  as  Dr.  Carlstadt 
dreams,  but  the  first-fruits,  which  they  should  willingly  bring  to  the 


298)  Mueller,  Symbolische  Buecher,  51. 
29^  St.  Louis  Ed..  22,  1007. 


276         THE  EFFECT  OP  THE  BEFOBMATION  ON  THE  LITURGY. 

priests  on  the  day  of  Pentecost  as  an  annual  tax,  and  there  before 
the  Lord  by  their  offering  confess  and  thank  that  they  had  received 
such  fruits  and  land  from  the  Lord,  as  He  teaches  them  in  a  fine  way 
Deut.  26,  10.  13."  ^oo)  And  in  the  Lutheran  Confessions  we  read : 
"Missa  and  liturgia  do  not  mean  sacrifices.  Missa  in  Hebrew  means 
a  collected  tax.  For  this  was  probably  the  manner  that  the  Christians 
brought  meat  and  drink  for  the  benefit  of  the  poor  into  the  meeting. 
And  this  custom  was  derived  from  the  Jews,  who  were  obliged  to 
bring  such  a  tax  to  their  festivals :  this  they  called  missa.  Thus  also 
liturgia  in  Greek  really  means  an  office  in  which  one  serves  the  con- 
gregation; which  agrees  well  with  our  doctrine  that  the  priest  serves 
as  a  common  minister  of  those  that  wish  to  go  to  Communion  and 
gives  them  the  Holy  Sacrament.  .  .  Some  believe  that  missa  is  not 
derived  from  the  Hebrew,  but  means  as  much  as  remissio,  forgiveness 
of  sins.  For  when  communion  was  celebrated,  the  final  words  were, 
Ite,  missa  est;  Go  in  peace,  you  have  remission  of  sins."  2^^)  "Quor- 
sum  opus  est  procul  quaerere  etymologiam,  quum  exstet  nomen  missa, 
Deut.  16,  10,  ubi  significat  collationes  seu  munera  populi,  non  obla- 
tionem  sacerdotis.  Debebant  enim  singuli  venientes  ad  celebrationem 
paschae  aliquod  munus  quasi  symbolum  afferre.  Hunc  morem  initio 
retinuerunt  et  Christiani.  Convenientes  offerebant  panes,  vinum  et 
alia,  ut  testantur  canones  apostolorum.  Inde  sumebatur  pars,  quae 
consecraretur ;  reliquum  distribuebatur  pauperibus.  Cum  hoc  more 
retinuerunt  et  nomen  collationum  missa."  ^^^)  In  spite  of  the  fact 
that  many  liturgiologists,  going  back  to  the  Peregrinatio  Sylviae  and 
the  fourth  century,  make  the  unmodified  assertion  that  the  word 
Missa  is  derived  from  the  formula  of  dismissal  in  the  chief  service, 
the  etymology  which  Luther  and  Melanchthon  defend  has  by  no 
means  been  disproved.  For  it  was  just  at  the  time  when  the  idea  of 
a  sacrifice  offered  in  the  Eucharist  was  being  broached  that  the  word 
Missa  crept  into  the  language  of  the  Church.  In  spite  of  the  fact 
that  Luther  has  such  a  strong  antipathy  against  the  word  Mass,  how- 
ever, and  although  he  cordially  wished  that  he  might  return  to  the 
ancient  designation  "Communion,"  he  retained  the  name  "Missa," 
thu^  signifying  that  "in  the  external  form  of  service  he  did  not  wish 
to  establish  anything  new,  but  merely  tad  the  intention  of  leading 
back  to  the  old,  correct  form  of  worship."  ^^^) 

This  fact  is  also  established  beyond  a  doubt  by  a  careful  com- 
parison of  his  writings  in  which  he  treats  of  the  Mass  and  its  form 
in  some  manner.     For  Luther  had  soon  gained  the  conviction  that 


300)  20,  176.  301)  Apologia,  Art.  24.    Mueller,  267. 

302)  P.  266,  Nos.  85.  86. 

303)  Lochner,  Der  Hauptgottesdiemt,  10. 


THE  EFFECT  OF  THE  BEFOBMATION  ON  THE  LITUKGY,         277 

the  false  doctrines  of  the  pope  in  regard  to  the  Mass  found  expression 
in  the  Canon  of  the  Mass,  and  had  therefore,  in  his  "Seinnon  of  the 
Xew  Testament,  that  is,  of  the  Holy  Mass"  of  Aug.  3,  1520,  and  in 
his  ''Exposition  Concerning  the  Abuse  of  the  Mass,"  which  he  wrote 
in  November,  1521,  but  did  not  publish  till  1522,  condemned  both 
doctrine  and  canon,  wherever  they  did  not  agree  with  Scriptures. 
Another  monograph  of  this  period  which  served  to  throw  light  ujwn 
the  dangers  of  the  Mass,  was  his  "Book  of  the  Babylonian  Captivity 
of  the  Church,"  of  Oct.  6,  1520.  Luther's  object  in  issuing  these 
books  was  to  lay  bare  the  foundation  of  false  doctrine  and  ambiguity 
upon  whicli  the  Mass  rests,  in  order  that  the  people  might  be  able  to 
judge  for  themselves  and  thus  be  prepared  for  changes  in  the  exter- 
nal forms  of  worship. 

But  while  Luther  was  thus  working  in  a  quiet  manner  and  paving 
the  way,  by  thorough  instruction,  for  the  abolishment  of  the  anti- 
Scriptural  ritual  of  the  Mass,  his  colleague  Carlstadt,  who  at  that 
time  was  incidentally  archdeacon  of  the  dome-church,  proved  himself 
a  man  without  judgment,  whose  rashness  greatly  interfered  with  the 
quiet  spread  of  the  Keformation.  While  Luther  was  at  the  Wartburg, 
on  Dec.  22,  1521,  he  declared  in  a  public  sermon  that  he  would,  on 
the  comiug  day  of  Circumcision,  celebrate  Mass  according  to  Christ's 
institution.  He  carried  out  his  intention  even  sooner,  namely  on 
Christmas  Day.  He  celebrated  Mass  after  the  sermon,  omitting 
everything  that  referred  to  the  sacrifice  and  also  the  elevation,  and 
finally  giving  the  people  bread  and  wine  with  the  words  of  institu- 
tion, but  without  previous  confession,  each  commvmicant  taking  the 
elements  with  his  own  hands.  Since  Luther  was  not  in  Wittenberg, 
Carlstadt  met  with  no  serious  opposition  and  acted  according  to  his 
own  good  pleasure.  A  scant  month  later,  on  Jan.  24,  1522,  the  Coun- 
cil and  the  University  of  Wittenberg  adopted  the  church  order  pro- 
posed by  him.  In  this  order,  the  form  of  the  Mass  is  given  as  follows : 
"Let  them  sing  introitum,  kyrieleison,  gloria  in  excelsis,  et  in  terra, 
collecta  or  preces.  Epistle,  gradual  without  sequence.  Gospel,  credo, 
oifertorium,  praefatio,  sanctus  without  canonem  majorem  and  mino- 
rem,  since  they  are  not  according  to  Scripture.  Then  begins  the 
Evangelical  meal;  if  there  be  communicants,  the  priest  consecrates; 
if  there  be  none,  he  consecrates  and  communes,  if  his  devotion  tends 
thereto;  thereafter  he  concludes  with  the  collecta,  without  Ite,  missa 
est."  304)  Here  Carlstadt  shows  plainly  that  he  has  not  the  faintest 
understanding  of  either  the  correlation  or  the  meaning  of  the  ancient 
ser\'ice8.    For  that  the  Preface  with  the  Sanctus  should  be  sung  and 


304)  Sehling,  Die  evangelischen   Kirchenordnungen  des   16.   Jahrhun- 
(lerts.  I,  698;  Kliefoth,  Die  umpruciujliche  Oottesdiemtordnung,  IV,  21.  22. 


278         THE  EFFECT   OF  THE  REFORMATION   OX  THE   LITURGY. 

the  consecration  take  place,  even  if  no  communion  was  to  be  celebra- 
ted, renders  the  liturgy  meaningless.  It  is  here  that  the  reformers 
showed  the  proper  intuition  in  their  structure  of  the  liturgy,  for  it  is 
essential  that  the  Distribution  follow  the  Consecration,  to  complete 
the  Communion,  They  amended  the  Augustinian  maxim:  Accedat 
verbum  ad,  elementum,  et  fit  sacramentiom,  by  adding ;  Et  distribuan- 
tur  ambo.  Fortunately,  Luther  arrived  in  Wittenberg  on  March  7, 
1522,  and  his  coming  terminated  the  reign  of  license  and  lawlessness 
which  Carlstadt  and  his  coworkers  had  instigated.  Through  his  well- 
known  eight  sermons  against  the  iconoclasts  Luther  restored  peace  in 
Wittenberg  and  in  a  measure  corrected  the  wrong  impression  which 
the  "heavenly  prophets"  had  produced  in  many  minds.  Luther's 
judgment  in  regard  to  Carlstadt's  entire  method  of  procedure  is  con- 
tained in  one  sentence :  "It  was  done  in  a  criminal  outrage,  without 
any  order,  with  offense  of  the  neighbor." 

As  matters  now  stood  in  Wittenberg,  it  would  not  have  been  ad- 
visable to  return  to  the  former  Roman  Mass,  but  Luther  advised  the 
most  conservative  progress  in  the  matter  of  liturgical  reform:  to 
celebrate  Mass  in  the  accustomed  vestments,  with  chanting  and  all 
the  traditional  ceremonies,  and  in  the  Latin  language;  to  expunge 
all  words  in  the  Canon  and  in  the  prayers  which  have  any  reference 
to  the  sacrifice;  to  abolish  private  masses,  but  not  the  daily  Mass, 
gradually  reducing  their  number,  however,  until  Eucharist  be  cele- 
brated only  on  Sundays  or  when  communicants  are  present.  In  the 
meantime,  Luther  advised  the  clergy  to  preach  diligently  concerning 
Holy  Communion  and  to  teach  the  people,  in  order  that  the  way 
might  be  paved  for  further  and  more  radical  changes. 

Luther  himself  did  not  remain  inactive  in  this  matter,  although 
he  made  no  public  move  with  regard  to  the  practical  amelioration  of 
existing  conditions  until  the  next  year.  The  Council  and  fhe  congre- 
gation of  Leissnig  prompted  him  to  carry  out  the  intention  which  he 
had  had  for  several  years,  that  of  publishing  a  full  order  of  worship, 
from  which  the  objectionable  features  of  the  Roman  Mass  should  be 
eliminated.  The  people  of  Leissnig  sent  their  representatives  to 
Luther  on  Jan.  25,  1523,  expressing,  in  the  accompanying  credentials, 
the  earnest  hope  and  petition  that  Luther  would  collate  for  them  "an 
order  to  sing  and  pray  and  read."  To  this  petition  Luther  promised 
to  accede,  as  he  states  in  his  answer  of  Jan.  29,  Shortly  after  Easter, 
in  accordance  with  this  promise,  there  appeared  his  short  monograph 
"Of  the  Order  of  Divine  Service  in  the  Congregation."  ^05)  His  po- 
sition is  still  very  conservative,  but  he  wants  the  daily  Masses  abol- 


305)  10,   220—225;    Daniel,    Codex  Uturgicus,    II,   75—80;     Kliefoth, 
IV,  27. 


THE  EFFECT  OF  THE  REFORMATION  ON  THE  LITURGY.         279 

ished  entirely  and  the  liturgy  purified  of  papal  leaven.  Above  all, 
however,  he  enunciates  the  principle  which  he  insisted  upon  ever 
afterwards  with  the  greatest  emphasis:  "To  abrogate  these  abuses, 
it  is  necessary  first  to  know  that  the  Christian  congregation 'should 
never  meet  unless  God's  Word  is  there  preached  and  prayed,  even  if 
it  be  very  brief.  .  .  .  Therefore,  when  God's  Word  is  not  preached, 
it  is  better  neither  to  sing  nor 'to  read  nor  to  assemble." 

In  the  course  of  the  summer  Luther  found  occasion  to  write  to 
the  Chapter  of  Wittenberg,  under  date  of  August  19,  1523,  with  re- 
ference to  the  services  held  in  the  dome.^^)  This  he  followed  up,  on 
October  12  of  the  same  year,  with  a  letter  to  Spalatin,  in  which  he 
discussed  the  abolition  of  the  Roman  Masses  and  ceremonies  in  the 
church  of  Wittenberg.^O")  The  very  next  month,  November,  1523,  he 
published  his  Formula  missae  et  communionis  pro  ecclesia  Witten- 
bergensi.308)  It  is  addressed  to  Nicolaus  Hausmann  in  Zwickau,  who 
had  been  especially  importunate  in  urging  Luther  to  finish  its  colla- 
tion. It  is  interesting  to  see  here  how  carefully  and  tactfully  the 
Reformer  distinguishes  and  chooses.  All  the  parts  that  were  not 
anti-Scriptural,  he  retained;  whatever  he  expunged,  he  omitted  with 
good  reasons,  clearly  stated.  The  changes  which  he  advocated  were 
equally  well  foimded.  His  order  of  service  contained  the  following 
parts :  Introitus  (quamquam  psalmos  mallenms,  unde  sumpti  svmt)  ; 
Kyrie  eleison  (ut  hactenus  celebratum  est)  with  following  Gloria  in 
excelsis;  Oratio  seu  CoUecta  (modo  sit  pia,  ut  fere  sunt  quae  domi- 
nicis  diebus  habentur) ;  Lectio  epistolae ;  Graduale  (duorum  versuum 
simul  cum  Alleluia)  ;  ^Lectio  evangelii  (ube  nee  candelas  neque  thuri- 
ficationem  prohibemus,  sed  nee  exigimus) ;  Symbolum  Nicaepum ; 
Sermo  (either  in  this  place  or  before  the  Introit).  In  the  first  part 
of  the  service,  therefore,  Luther  had  omitted  the  Initium  missae  with 
the  Confiteor  and  also  the  Sequences  or  Proses,  the  former,  because 
it  could  not  be  retained  in  its  form,  as  then  obtaining  in  the  Roman 
use,  the  latter  in  order  to  shorten  the  services  somewhat.  At  the 
same  time,  Luther  was  anxious  to  have  the  sequences  retained  for 
the  vesper  services,  either  in  Latin  or  in  a  good  German  transcription. 

^V^lile  Luther,  then,  in  the  first  part,  had  admitted  almost  every 
part  of  the  Roman  ordo,  he  attacked  the  second  part,  with  the  Canon 
missae,  with  drastic  zeal.  He  called  this  section  an  abomination  and 
stated,  in  his  characteristic  manner:  Abhinc  omnia  fere  sonant  ac 
olent  oblationem.  He  deleted  the  OflFertorium,  the  Secreta,  and  the 
entire  Canon  missae.  He  also  changed  the  text  in  numerous  places 
in  order  to  remove  every  siispicion  of  false  doctrine  from  the  Collects. 
The  following  parts  remained  after  he  had  finished  his  recension: 


306)   19,  1184—1189.  307)   19,  1188—1191. 

POS)   10.  ?2rO— ?2.'.5;    Pfiivpl,  TT.  90—97. 


280         THE  EFFECT  OF  THE  BEFORMATION  ON  TH-E   LITURGY. 

Praefatio  with  Salutation,  Sursum,  Dignum;  Verba  institutionis  (in 
eo  tono  vocis.  .  .  .,  ut  a  circumstantibus  possit  audiri) ;  Oratio  domi- 
nica  and  Pax  domini,  preceded  by  Sanctus;  Communion,  during 
which  Agnus  Dei  sung;  Postcommunio  with  Oratio,  Salutatio,  Bene- 
dicanius  Domino,  Benedictio  (Num.  6,  24 — 26)."  ^09) 

Much  as  had  been  accomplished  by  these  changes,  Luther  was 
not  yet  satisfied.  The  longer  he  studied  the  question,  the  more  he 
was  filled  with  horror  on  accoxmt  of  the  private  masses,  votive  masses, 
and  masses  for  the  dead,  with  their  complete  annihilation  of  the 
Holy  Eucharist.  During  the  year  1524  he  therefore  issued  his  book 
"Of  the  Abomination  of  the  Private  Mass  which  is  Called  the  Canon," 
directing  his  invective  principally  against  the  portion  called  the 
Secreta,  with  its  false  doctrine  of  the  unbloody  sacrifice.^^*')  On  the 
17th  of  November  of  the  same  year  he  again  directed  a  letter  to  the 
Chapter  at  Wittenberg,  begging  them  to  celebrate  the  Eucharist  sub 
utraque  and  to  omit  the  impious  ceremonies.  The  result  was  that  a 
new  order  was  introduced  at  Wittenberg  on  December  24,  which 
abolished  all  masses  but  those  on  Sundays.  If  no  communicants  had 
been  annouuced,  Mass  should  not  be  said.  In  that  case,  the  order  of 
service  was  to  be :  Introitus,  Kyrie  eleison,  Et  in  terra,  etc..  Collects 
de  tempore,  Credo,  Patrem,  Pater  noster,  Agnus  Dei,  and  the  order 
of  Luther  of  1523  should  be  followed.^n) 

In  the  year  1525  the  Reformer  succeeded  in  completing  his  first 
draft  for  a  German  order  of  services.  In  regard  to  this  order,  he 
wrote  to  John  Lang  and  the  other  minister  at  Erfurt,  on  October  28 : 
''We  had  indeed  drawn  up  an  outline  and  have  sent  it  to  our  Prince, 
and  now  the  form  will,  by  his  order,  be  completed  and  tried  tomorrow, 
on  Sunday,  in  the  name  of  Christ,  in  a  public  trial.  But  it  wiU  be 
a  German  Mass  for  the  lay  people."  ^^^)  He  refers  also  to  the  printed 
copies  which  might  soon  be  expected.  Thus  the  first  German  Mass 
at  Wittenberg  was  celebrated  on  the  29th  of  October,  1525,  this  being 
the  20th  Sunday  after  Trinity.  The  musician  John  Walther  wrote 
the  music  for  the  liturgy  under  Luther's  direction,  and  with  his  help. 
It  is  characteristic  of  Luther  that  he  on  that  day,  after  the  sermon, 
once  more  briefly  explained  to  ^he  assembled  people  for  what  reason 
and  with  what  intention  the  change  was  made,  in  order  to  avoid  of- 
fense.212)  The  public  trial  of  the  Mass  in  the  vernacular  having  met 
with  approval,  it  was,  at  the  following  Christmas,  permanently  intro- 
duced into  worship  at  Wittenberg.^i'') 


309)  Locliner,    Der    Hauptgottesdienst,    15 — 17;    Alt,    Der    kirchliche 
Gottesdienst,  263.  264;   Sehling,  Op.  cit.,  4—6.  310)   19,  1198—1214. 

311)   19.  1196.  119Y.  312)   21a,  797.  313)    11,  1786. 

314)  Cp.  Kliefoth,  Sehling,  De  Wette,  Horn,  Richards-Painter,  etc. 


THE  EFFECT  OF  THE  REFORMATION  ON  THE  LITURGY.         281 

Only  a  short  time  later,  in  the  first  months  of  the  year  1526, 
there  followed  the  printed  edition  "German  Mass  and  Order  of  Ser- 
vices" 2^^)  Luther  expressly  states  that  this  order  in  the  vernacular 
was  not  intended  to  supersede  or  change  the  Formula  missae.  And 
there  are,  in  the  parts  which  he  retained,  only  few  additions.  His 
substitutions  were  not  so  happy  as  they  might  have  been,  especially 
in  the  case  of  the  German  Sanetus  and  the  substitution  of  the  Para- 
phrasis  for  the  Praefatio.  The  following  parts  are  included  in  the 
full  order  of  services:  At  the  beginning  an  anthem  or  German 
Psalm;  then  Kyrieleison,  three  rimes,  not  nine  times;  then  the  priest 
reads  a  Collect;  then  the  Epistle;  after  the  Epistle  is  sung  a  German 
hymn :  Now  we  do  pray  the  Holy  Ghost,  or  some  other,  and  that  with 
the  whole  choir;  then  the  priest  reads  the  Gospel;  after  the  Gospel 
the  whole  congregation  sings  the  Creed:  We  all  believe  in  one  true 
God;  then  follows  the  Sermon  upon  the  Gospel  of  the  Sunday  or 
holiday.  After  the  Sermon  there  shall  follow  a  public  Paraphrase  of 
the  Lord's  Prayer  and  an  Admonition  to  those  that  intend  to  partake 
of  Holy  Communion,  Then  follows  the  Office  and  Consecration: 
Words  of  Institution,  the  German  Sanetus  or  the  hymn.  Now  God 
be  praised,  or,  Jesus  Christ  our  Blessed  Savior,  and  the  German 
Agnus  Dei  during  the  Distribution.  Then  the  Thanksgiving,  Col- 
lect, and  the  Aaronic  Benediction.^i^)  Although  the  responsive  li- 
turgy had  been  reduced  by  Luther  to  a  minimum,  his  order  was,  on 
the  whole,  liturgically  correct,  and  the  fact  that  it  was  in  the  verna- 
cular appealed  to  the  people  very  strongly.  Bugenhagen  soon  made 
provision  for  the  chief  service,  without  the  celebration  of  the  Eucha- 
rist, by  directing  that  the  first  part  of  the  service  should  be  held  as 
usual.  After  the  sermon,  in  the  usual  vestments  of  the  Mass,  shall 
be  sung  the  Preface,  Sanetus,  the  German  Pater  Noster,  O  Christ 
thou  Lamb  of  God,  a  German  Collect,  and  the  Blessing. ^i") 

Luther's  work  was  not  only  followed  with  great  interest  in  Wit- 
tenberg and  elsewhere,  but  it  also  had  the  warmest  approbation  and 
the  most  cordial  cooperation  of  his  colleagues  and  friends.  Bugen- 
hagen, Melanchthon,  and  Spalatin  especially  worked  in  the  spirit  and 
after  the  manner  of  Luther.  Other  men  were  not  influenced  so  di- 
rectly by  Luther,  but  they  took  their  inspiration  from  him  and  fol- 
lowed the  fundamental  principles  for  public  worship  as  enunciated 
by  him.  The  various  countries  of  the  German  Empire  soon  published 
extensive  church  regulations  (Kirchenordnungen),  which  contained 
the  outlines,  rules  and  regulations  of  all  services  and  liturgical  acts 


315)  10,  226—257;   Daniel,  97—112. 

316)  Cp.  Alt,  Der  kirchlicJie  Gottesdienst,  266—271. 

317)  Alt,  270,  nota. 


282         THE  EFFECT  OF  THE  REFOBMATION  ON  THE  LITURGY. 

as  -they  appeared  in  special  service  books,  known  as  Cantionales  and 
Agenda.  These  church  books  have  been  preserved  and  edited  mainly 
by  Richter  and  Sehling,  and  afford  a  most  interesting  study.  They 
are  generally  divided  into  three  groups.  The  first  group  includes  the 
forms  that  were  most  conservative  and  carefully  followed  the  tra- 
ditional uses.  The  most  notable  are  the  Brandenburg  (arranged  by 
Stratner  of  Ansbach  and  Buchholtzer  of  Berlin,  in  1540),  the  PfaLz- 
Xeuburg  of  1543,  based  upon  the  preceding,  and  the  Austrian  of  1571 
(arranged  by  Chytraeus),  which  has  marked  Romanizing  tendencies. 
To  the  second  group  belong  all  the  church  orders  of  the  Saxon-Luthe- 
ran type,  based  upon  the  Formula  missae  and  the  Deutsche  Messe. 
Some  of  the  best-known  are  the  Prussian,  1525,  Brunswick,  1528, 
Hamburg,  1529,  Minden  and  Goettingen,  1530,  Luebeck,  1531,  Soest, 
1582,  Bremen,  1534,  Pomeranian,  1535,  all  of  which  appeared  under 
the  direction  of  Bugenhagen;  the  Brandenburg-Nuernberg,  1533  (by 
Osiander  and  Brenz),  for  Duke  Henry  of  Saxony,  1539  (by  Justus 
Jonas),  and  others  by  Urbanus  Rhegius,  Chemnitz,  and  Andreae. 
The  third  group  presents  the  so-called  mediating  type  between  the 
Lutheran  and  the  Reformed  service.  Some  church  orders  of  this 
group  are  those  of  Strassburg,  Wuertemberg,  the  Palatine,  of  Baden, 
Worms,  and  others.  The  beginning  of  this  type  was  made  by  Bucer, 
Capito,  Hedio,  and  others,  in  1525.  The  orders  of  Brenz,  the  Schwae- 
bisch-Hall,  of  1526,  and  especially  the  New  Schwaebisch-Hall,  of 
1543,  and  the  Great  Wuertemberg,  of  1553,  show  less  of  this  pecu- 
liarity.3^8) 

It  is  most  interesting  to  find  the  principles  enunciated  by  the 
great  reformers  laid  down  so  distinctly  in  the  Lutheran  Confessions, 
the  principal  passages  being  the  Augsburg  Confession,  Articles  XV 
and  XXVIII,  the  Apologia  Confessionis,  Article  XXIV,  the  Articuli 
Smalcaldici,  Pars  II,  Art.  II,  and  the  Formula  Concordiae,  Art.  X, 
30.  31.319) 

Thus  the  reformers  worked  with  all  energy  at  the  gigantic  task, 
producing  scores  of  service  books  which  were  free  from  Roman  doc- 
trine and  superstition  and  gave  the  people  the  opportunity  to  take  an 
intelligent  part  in  services  which  were,  for  the  most  part,  conducted 
in  the  vernacular.  Luther  had  good  reason  for  writing,  in  1533 : 
"God  be  praised,  in  our  churches  we  can  show  a  Christian  a  right 
Christian  Mass  according  to  the  order  and  institution  of  Christ,  and 
according  to  the  true  meaning  of  Christ  and  the  church.  There  our 
pastor,  bishop,  or  servant  in  the  ministry,  correctly  and  truly  and 


318)  Cp.  Horn,  Liturgies,  123;  Richards-Painter,  Christian  Worship, 
Chapter  IX;  Memoirs,  IV:  1. 

319)  Mueller,  42.  62.  257—262.  301—305.  703. 


THE  LITURGICAL  DETERIORATION.  283 

openly  called,  who  was  consecrated,  anointed,  and  bom  to  be  a  priest 
of  Christ  in  Baptism,  steps  before  the  altar;  he  sings  publicly  and 
plainly  the  order  of  Christ,  instituted  in  the  Lord's  Supper,  takes 
bread  and  wine,  gives  thanks,  distributes  and  gives  it  by  the  power 
of  the  word  of  Christ :  This  is  my  body,  this  is  my  blood,  this  do,  etc., 
to  us,  who  are  there  and  wish  to  receive  it,  and  we,  especially  those 
intending  to  partake  of  the  Sacrament,  kneel  down  beside,  behind, 
and  around  him,  man,  woman,  young,  old,  master,  servant,  mistress, 
maid,  parents,  children,  as  the  Lord  brings  us  together  there,  all  true, 
holy  copriests,  sanctified  through  the  blood  of  Christ  and  anointed 
and  consecrated  through  the  Holy  Ghost  in  Baptism.  .  ,  That  is  our 
Mass  and  the  right  Mass,  of  which  we  are  no  longer  in  want."  ?20) 


CHAPTER  7. 

The    Liturgical    Deterioration   of  tlie    Latter  Seventeenth   and   the 

Eighteenth  Century. 

"It  is  a  lugubrious,  heartrending  chapter  out  of  the  history  of 
the  Lutheran  Church  and  of  the  Christian  Church  in  general,  this 
chajiter  before  us!"  These  words  of  IOiefoth32i)  may  well  be  placed 
at  the  head  of  this  chapter.  To  turn  from  the  beauty  and  glory  of 
the  16th  century,  where  every  pulse  in  the  body  of  the  renovated 
Church  was  quivering  and  throbbing  with  vigor  and  energy,  when 
the  ancient  doctrine  of  justification  was  again  proclaimed  in  all  its 
purity,  and  the  service  of  the  Church  was  once  more  fashioned  after 
the  simplicity  of  the  earliest  times,  —  to  leave  this,  and  come  upon 
a  scene  of  ruin  and  destruction,  with  only  a  few  oases  remaining  in 
a  vast  desert  of  blackened  tombs,  is  very  depressing  and  disheartening. 
Just  when  the  canker  first  appeared  is  not  difficult  to  find.  It  may 
be,  of  course,  that  the  pressure  which  was  brought  to  bear  upon  cer- 
tain Lutheran  cominunities  at  the  time  of  the  two  Interims,  the 
Augustanum  and  the  Lipsiense,  and  by  Reformed  influences  in  other 
parts  of  Germany,  determined,  in  a  measure,  their  aspect  of  doctrinal 
and  liturgical  questions.  To  such  influences,  for  example,  might  be 
traced  the  Austrian  Church  Order  of  1571,  on  the  one  hand,  and 
some  of  the  later  ones  of  southwestern  Germany  on  the  other.  It 
may  also  be,  as  has  been  suggested,  that  the  fire  of  the  first  love  had 
spent  itself  after  a  century  of  brightest  burning.  But  the  main  rea- 
son for  the  liturgical  deterioration,  which  began  in  the  second  half 
of  the  17th  century  and  lasted  well  into  the  19th,  must  be  sought,  as 


320)  Von  (lev  AVitikehnesse  und  Pfaffentreihe,  19,  1279,  1280. 

321)  Die  urspruengliche  Gottesdienstordniing,  \,  207. 


284  THE  LITUBGICAL  DETERIORATION. 

Kiiefoth  shows,  in  the  period  of  restoration,  which  had  its  beginning 
after  the  close  of  the  Thirty  Years'  War,  and  extended  to  the  first 
decenniums  of  the  18th  century .222) 

The  task  which  confronted  the  ecclesiastical  authorities  of  Ger- 
many at  the  end  of  the  Thirty  Years'  War  was  little  short  of  Hercu- 
lean. Not  only  single  villages  or  cities,  but  entire  provinces  had  been 
rendered  desolate.  The  congregations  in  most  states  had  been  deci- 
mated, many  of  them  had  been  reduced  to  a  scant  percentage  of  sur- 
vivors. The  churches  and  school-houses  had  been  desecrated,  burned, 
devastated,  the  sacred  vessels  and  vestments  had  been  taken  as  wel- 
come plunder.  Many  parishes  had  neither  pastor  nor  schoolmaster 
to  maintain  records  and,  in  many  cases,  the  records  were  lost  entirely. 
The  men,  for  the  most  part,  were  drafted  for  some  form  of  military 
service,  the  boys  joined  the  regular  armies  or  the  bands  of  guerillas 
for  the  sake  of  adventure.  The  education  and  training  of  the  young 
was,  of  necessity,  neglected.  The  few  pastors  that  remained  did  their 
best  to  stem  the  tide  of  godless  living  and  desecration  of  everything 
holy  which  rushed  in  the  wake  of  the  armies,  but  could  do  little  to 
maintain  Christian  order  and  discipline.  With  the  coming  of  peace, 
the  leaders  of  the  Evangelical  Church  in  Germany  intended  to  work 
order  out  of  chaos.  It  was  not  a  problem  of  reformation  and  reno- 
vation, but  of  restoration;  "not  the  work  of  purifying  the  Church's 
faith  and  practise,  which  had  already  been  done,  but  the  much  more 
difficult  task  of  again  bringing  the  purified  faith  and  practise  into 
the  consciousness  and  life  of  a  people  demoralized  by  war,  having  no 
real  hunger  and  thirst  for  the  Gospel,  and  therefore  not  responsive 
to  it  as  the  masses  of  the  preceding  century  had  been."  ^23) 

The  leaders  of  the  Church  were  bent  upon  a  quick  and  thorough 
restoration  of  the  status  quo  ante.  Instead  of  depending  upon  the 
slow  and  laborious  method  of  educating  the  people  and  gradually 
making  them  accustomed  to  decency,  order,  and  a  Christian  life,  they 
determined  to  set  in  again  just  where  the  war  had  interrupted  the 
work  of  the  Church.  One  of  their  first  steps  was  the  publication  or 
re-issue  of  the  old  Church  Orders,  many  of  which  had  been  destroyed 
during  the  war,  and  none  of  which  were  longer  in  operation.  They 
added  numerous  provisions,  instituted  regular  visitations,  fi^ed  the 
income  of  the  parishes,  regulated  the  circumstances  of  the  congre- 
gational activities,  restored  the  jurisdiction  of  the  consistories,  and 
sought,  by  legalistic  means,  to  bring  order  into  the  cultus.324)  Jt 
cannot  be  doubted  that  this  method  may  have  been  demanded  by  the 
conditions.     There  is  also  no  reason  for  assuming  that  the  men  who 


322)  Kiiefoth,  V.'  210. 

323)  Ohl,  The  Liturgical  Deterioration,  Memoirs,  IV:   6. 

324)  Cp.  Alt,  Der  kirchliche  Gottesdienst,  317. 


THE   LITURGICAL  DETERIORATION.  285 

instigated  the  restoration  were  not  sincere  and  sought  anything  but 
the  welfare  of  their  charges.  They  were  bred  in  the  orthodox  faith 
and  filled  with  love  and  desire  to  work  for  the  Master. 

But  the  fatal  defect  of  the  revised  Church  Orders  was  their  le- 
galistic, bureaucratic  character.  "The  conceptions  underlying  many 
of  their  new  provisions  were  legalistic  and  often  dogmatically  vn- 
sound;  obedience  was  to  be  effected  not  solely  by  the  power  of  evan- 
gelical truth,  as  in  the  16th  century,  but  rather  by  threats  of  punish- 
ment for  disobedience;  and  the  result  was  that  the  very  idea  of  the 
Church  and  its  purpose  became  externalized,  grades  and  hierarchical 
tendencies  began  to  manifest  themselves  in  its  ministry,  and,  when  at 
last  the  Church  became  a  mere  department  of  the  civil  government, 
the  latter  undertook  to  regulate  not  only  the  more  external  parochial 
affairs,  but  even  to  prescribe  what  liturgies,  hymnbooks,  and  doctrinal 
standards  should  be  used."  225) 

The  resulting  deterioration  came  about  in  such  a  gradual  man- 
ner that  its  insidiousness  was  hardly  noticed  at  first.  No  doubt  an 
important  factor  in  giving  impetus  to  the  decay  was  the  position  of 
the  rulers  of  Prussia,  whose  unionistic  propensities  were  favorable  to 
indifference  in  dogmatic  and  ritualistic  position.  The  admiration 
for  the  doctrinal  vigor  and  the  liturgical  beauty  of  the  Keformation 
period  remained,  the  intention  of  returning  to  the  purity  of  the  pre- 
vious century  was  often  proclaimed,  but  the  vitality  for  concerted 
action  was  lacking.  Since  the  congregations  were  not  able  to  per- 
form, as  their  part  of  the  services,  what  the  Church  Orders  of  the 
IGth  century  demanded  of  them,  and  since  the  bureaucratic  clergy 
felt  no  incentive  to  instruct  their  charges  in  a  proper  manner,  the 
demands  were  simply  reduced  to  the  ability. of  the  people.  The  last 
remnant  of  Latin  chanting  was  omitted,  and  instead  of  rendering 
the  parts  of  the  service  into  German,  the  responsories  of  that  kind 
were  abolished.  The  more  difiicult  anthems,  involving  antiphonal 
singing,  followed,  and  before  long  the  only  participation  of  the  con- 
gregation in  the  service  was  the  singing  of  the  chorals.  The  result 
was  that  the  classic  art  of  choral  music  fell  into  desuetude.  In  many 
cases,  even  the  singing  of  the  chorals  was  reduced  to  a  minimum  and 
all  responsive  chanting  delegated  to  the  choir  and  the  cantor.326) 

Toward  the  end  of  the  17th  century  it  became  apparent  that  the 
Church  of  Germany  had  submitted  to  a  dead  orthodoxy  with  its  con- 
sequent formalism.  The  pendulum  was  therefore  bound  to  swing  to 
the  other  extreme.  The  detached,  uninterested  objectivity  was  fol- 
lowed by  an  excessive  subjectivity,  which  was  bound  to  overshoot  the 
mark  in  the  opposite  direction.     The   reaction   crystallized  in  the 


325)  Ohl,  L.  c,  68.  326)  KUefoth,  V,  223. 


286  THE  LITUKGICAL  DETEBIOKATION. 

Pietistic  movement,  as  it  was  fully  develoi)ed  in  the  first  part  of  the 
18th  century.  The  chief  exponent  of  the  movement  was  Spener. 
Acting  upon  his  suggestion,  the  public  meetings  of  the  congregation, 
public  communion,  and  private  confession,  were  supplemented  by 
private  religious  meetings  in  the  home  (collegia  pietatis),  private 
communion,  and  private  religious  conversation  in  the  pastor's  study. 
But  the  revival  of  spiritual  life,  for  which  the  early  Pietism  had 
hoped,  soon  brought  about  methods  and  caused  sentiments  which  were 
destructive  to  the  cultus  of  the  Church.  The  subjective  conceptioii 
of  service  and  the  idea  of  secret  communion  with  God  which  the 
closet  exercises  had  generated  reacted  upon  the  form  of  service. 
A  critical  attitude  toward  the  content  of  the  sermon  became  evident; 
it  was  stated  that  the  truth  of  the  preacher's  discourse  depended  upon 
the  attitude  of  his  heart,  whether  he  were  truly  regenerated.  The 
public  sermon  was  no  longer  regarded  as  the  most  essential  part  of 
the  minister's  work,  but  rather  the  individual  pastoral  cura.  The 
idea  of  fixed  parts  in  the  liturgy  became  increasingly  distasteful  to 
the  Pietists.  "Extempore  prayer  was  substituted  for  the  church 
prayer;  the  objective  church  hymn  gave  way  to  hymns  descriptive  of 
the  soul's  changing  conditions,  experiences,  and  feelings;  the  hymn- 
books  were  arranged  according  to  the  order  of  salvation  instead  of 
the  church  year;  new  melodies  suited  to  the  emotional  character  of 
the  new  hymns  displaced  the  vigorous  old  church  tunes;  the  senti- 
mental aria  and  strains  patterned  after  the  prevailing  style  in  opera 
completely  crowded  out  the  noble  polyphonic  choir  music  of  the  early 
masters;  ...  in  a  word,  what  Pietism  set  out  to  do  finally  resulted 
not  in  bringing  about  again  a  proper  union  between  the  objective  and 
the  subjective,  but  in  the  overthrow  of  the  former  and  the  triumph 
of  the  latter.  The  sacramental  and  the  sacrificial  were  divorced,  and 
the  sacrificial  alone  remained."  ^27) 

In  what  manner  Pietism  brought  about  the  gradual  deterioration 
of  the  old  Lutheran  form  of  service,  is  shown  by  the  example  of  the 
litany,  adduced  by  Kliefoth.  The  litany,  having  a  fixed  form,  could 
hardly  keep  the  approval  of  the  new  ideas.  So  its  removal  was  ef- 
fected in  the  following  manner.  The  revised  Church  Order  of  Meck- 
lenburg permitted  the  change  between  the  litany  and  the  church 
prayer,  so  the. prayer  was  given  the  preference,  and  the  litany  used 
only  for  prayer  meetings  and  rogation  days.  Then  the  antiphonal 
singing  was  abolished,  and  the  minister  ordered  to  read  the  parts  or 
the  congregation  to  sing  them.  And  finally,  its  use  was  entirely  ab- 
rogated. At  the  same  time,  the  fixed  church  prayer  was  permitted  to 
be  replaced  by  an  extemporaneous  effort,  and  the  desired  result  thus 
finally  obtained. 

327)  Ohl,  70. 


THE  LITURGICAL  DETERIORATION.  287 

Pietism,  culminating  in  a  shallow  subjectivism,  hiad  either  de- 
stroj'ed  a  large  part  of  the  Lutheran  liturgy  or  robbed  it  of  its  mean- 
ing And,  in  so  doing,  it  had  unfortunately  prepared  the  way  for  the 
destructive  activity  of  Rationalism.  Rationalism,  as  Kliefoth  states, 
is  not  a  movement  in  the  Church  or  of  the  Church,  but  a  product  of 
science,  and  that  a  science  which  is  emancipated  from  the  Gospel  and 
the  Christian  faith.  During  its  reign  of  almost  a  century,  reason  sat 
enthroned  as  a  tyrant,  obtruding  its  hypotheses  and  theories  upon  the 
congregations  and  making  the  divinely  inspired  Word  an  object  of 
its  blasphemous  experiments.  The  Rationalists  rejected  both  the 
form  and  the  content  of  the  historic  church  service.  "What  sort  of 
appreciation  for  the  church  year  could  a  theology  have  that  based  its 
belief,  not  on  the  great  historic  facts  of  redemption,  but  on  its  own 
speculations?  How  could  such  a  religion  of  reason  permit  the  service 
on  its  sacramental  side  to  remain  what  it  originally  was  in  the  Lu- 
theran Church,  —  a  real  communication  of  divine  grace  through  the 
audible  and  visible  Word?  What  spiritual  pleasure  could  it  find  in 
the  hymns  and  prayers  and  liturgical  formularies  in  which  the  living 
faith,  begotten  by  Word  and  Sacrament,  was  once  wont  to  bring  its 
sacrifice  of  thanksgiving  and  praise?  Or  how  could  it  even  under- 
stand the  meaning  of  a  cultus  with  whose  history  it  did  not  care  to 
become  familiar,  and  that  stood  for  a  past  to  which  it  was  absolutely 
indifferent?"  ^28) 

The  result  of  such  principles  was  a  most  disastrous  one  for  the 
remnants  o:^  the  ancient  Lutheran  service.  The  church  became  a 
mere  lecture  hall,  not  only  in  Germany,  but  in  all  countries  where 
the  germs  -of  Rationalism  were  disseminated.  The  sermon  became  a 
discourse  consisting  of  rhetorical  platitudes,  and  even  shallow,  bom- 
bastic nonsense,  with  a  slightly  moral  tinge.  Fixed  prayers  were  no 
longer  recognized,  not  even  those  whose  text  is  found  in  Scriptures; 
the  old  Lutheran  hymns  were  mutilated  beyond  recognition.  A  ser- 
vice, however,  which  offered  to  the  congregations  nothing  but  insipid 
hymns,  dry  and  bombastic  prayers,  and  a  tedious  sermon  which  was 
often  a  mere  twaddle  concerning  matters  of  the  daily  civil  and  do- 
mestic life,  which  edified  none  and,  at  best,  had  little  practical  value, 
Was  bound  to  make  the  churches  empty. 

Such  weVe  the  factors  which  were  instrumental  in  causing  the 
deterioration  and,  in  many  cases,  the  total  destruction  of  the  ancient 
Lutheran  liturgy.  At  the  beginning  of  the  last  century,  matters  had 
come  to  such  a  pass  that  the  order  for  the  chief  service  had  been 
pared  down  to  the  bare  name,  the  minor  services  had  practically  dis- 
appeared, the  ancient  church  calendar  was  no  longer  observed,  and 


328)  Ohl,  L.  c,  71. 


288  THE  LITURGICAL  DETERIORATION. 

the  forms  for  sacred  acts  had  been  reduced  to  a  conglomerate  of  bom- 
bastic phrases.  The  old  liturgical  parts,  the  Introits,  Kyries,  Credo, 
Prefaces,  Agnus  Dei,  Litany  and  Te  Deum,  Magnificat,  Benedictus, 
Nunc  pacem,  etc.,  which  are  either  Scripture  passages  or  almost  as 
ancient  as  the  Christian  liturgy,  were  consigned  to  oblivion.  In  a 
few  cases,  the  one  or  the  other  was  still  found  in  the  order  of  worship, 
but  either  in  the  wrong  position,  or  with  the  wrong  mode  of  execu- 
tion. For  the  glorious,  uplifting  Prefaces  the  new  orders  had  insipid 
substitutes,  such  as:  '^Let  every  one  of  us  according  to  his  ability 
lift  up  mind,  heart,  and  spirit  to  the  invisible  world,  etc."  ^29)  In 
the  matter  of  collects,  the  greatest  license  began  to  rule.  The  pithy, 
sententious  collects  of  the  Reformation  period  were  exchanged  for 
verbose,  diluted,  subjective  formulas.  Even  the  Words  of  Institution, 
of  Distribution,  the  Lord's  Prayer,  and  the  Benediction  were  recast. 
Of  the  Lord's  Prayer,  a  great  number  of  rhymed  and  unrhymed  para- 
phrases appeared,  and  not  in  the  language  of  Scriptures,  but  in  the 
poetical  imagery  of  the  preacher,  and  Alt  relates  of  one,  that  he  had 
even  succeeded  in  expressing  the  grand  prayer  in  the  form  of  a  neat 
distych.  One  of  the  so-called  ministers  of  this  period  opened  the 
service  of  Easter  Sunday  with  a  morning  hymn,  read  a  prayer  at  the 
altar  composed  by  himself  in  which  he  praised  among  the  benefits  of 
the  Christian  religion  that  it  liberated  man  from  error  and  super- 
stition. There  followed  a  hymn  on  the  dread  of  ghosts  and  a  sermon 
on  the  same  topic.^^o) 

In  this  rarefied  atmosphere,  orders  of  services  and  agendas  were 
notable  for  their  attenuated  tendencies.  The  private  attempts  of 
Seiler,  Gutlin,  Sintenis,  Zollikofer,  and  others,  as  well  as  the  unionis- 
tic  measures  of  Frederick  I,  were  full  of  sentimental  subjectivism 
and  without  any  idea  of  the  demands  of  churchliness.  The  service 
as  fixed  by  the  last-named  monarch  included  an  opening  hjTnn,  prayer 
at  the  altar,  sermon  hymn,  sermon,  intercessions,  thanksgivings,  and 
proclamations,  the  general  confession,  Lord's  Prayer,  and  benediction 
(without  sign  of  cross),  reading  of  words  of  institution,  communion 
at  table.^i)  According  to  Kliefoth,  one  might  construct  a  composite 
liturgy  for  the  commmiion  service  of  the  latter  half  of  the  18th  and 
the  beginning  of  the  19th  century  as  follows.  The  Introit,  Kyrie, 
and  Gloria  have  been  abandoned,'  their  place  being  taken  by  an  intro- 
ductory hymn.  Then  follows  Salutation,  Collect,  Epistle,  Hymn, 
Sermon,  the  Creed  being  sung  in  a  few  places  before  the  Sermon. 
The  reading  of  the  Gospel  had  been  abolished.  The  Hallelujah,  Se- 
quences, Graduals,  and  the  beautiful  liturgical  responses  were  con- 


329)  Lochner,  206.  330)  Alt,  Der  kirchliche  Gottesdienf<t.  320. 

331)  Alt,  316. 


THE  LITURGICAL  DETERIORATION'.  28» 

signed  to  oblivion.  In  that  part  of  the  service  which  was  devoted  to 
the  Eucliarist  still  less  remained.  The  General  Prayer  was  superseded 
by  a  short  prayer  formula.  The  Preface  was  no  longer  found.  The 
Exhortation  had  been  retained  in  a  few  places,  as  also  the  Consecra- 
tion and  Commimion,  but  the  congregation  did  not  respond,  and  the 
Agnus  Dei  was  soon  unknown.  Even  in  the  Postcommunion  the  re- 
sponses of  the  congregation  were  dropped,  and  the  Nunc  dimittis  was 
replaced  by  a  convenient  verse.  Often  the  Lord's  Prayer  was  spoken 
by  the  minister  in  conclusion. 

The  saddest  fact  in  connection  with  the  general  deterioration  of 
the  liturgy,  however,  was  the  corruption  of  the  text  in  the  ancient, 
venerable  forms.  One  is  inclined  to  mistrust  his  own  eyes  when 
reading  sections  from  the  Agenda  of  Schleswig-Holstein,  by  Adler, 
1797.^2)  The  sentimental  shallowness  of  the  Address  and  Prayer  be- 
fore Communion  is  actually  revolting  to  anyone  familiar  with  the 
corresponding  passages  of  the  16th  century  orders.  The  Thanksgiv- 
ing of  the  Postcommunion  has  the  following  form :  "God,  how  happy 
are  we,  and  what  thanks  we  owe  to  Thee,  our  Father  and  Benefactor, 
that  Thou  through  Thy  Son,  Jesus  Christ,  hast  led  us  to  the  under- 
standing of  Thy  heavenly  truth  and  to  the  enjoyment  of  the  benefits 
in  which  we,  as  Christians,  find  our  delight.  For  all  that  we  have  in 
Him,  as  our  Teacher,  Redeemer,  and  Savior,  for  all  the  hope  in  suf- 
fering which  we  find  in  Him  and  in  remembrance  of  Him,  for  all  the 
comfort  when  our  conscience  torments  us,  we  praise  Thy  fatherly 
love  to-day.  Let  our  thanks  be  well-pleasing  to  Thee !  But  awaken 
us  now  also  to  the  proper  use  of  the  benefits  which  Thou  hast  given 
us  I  Keep  us  in  Thy  truth;  confirm  our  faith;  strengthen  our  love 
toward  Thee  and  to  our  brethren;  teach  us  to  be  of  a  like  mind  as 
Jesus  Christ  was,  and  imprint  it  deeply  in  our  souls  that  He  died  for 
all,  in  order  that  we  might  not  live  to  us,  Father,  but  Thee,  and  to 
Him  who  for  love  to  us  went  into  death.  Hear  our  prayer  for  the  sake 
of  Thy  mercy."  This  paraphrase  is  at  least  unobjectionable  from 
the  doctrinal  standpoint  with  all  its  verbosity.  But  the  transcription 
of  the  Benediction  is  decidedly  out  of  place:  "The  Lord  bless  you 
and  keep  you!  The  Lord,  who  forgives  sin  and  transgression,  be 
gracious  to  you!  The  Lord,  who  has  called  you  to  salvation,  give  you 
His  peace!" 333) 

Some  instances  of  liturgical  aberration  are  quoted  also  by  Dr. 
Ohl,33<)  from  which  the  following  extracts  may  suffice.  In  an  Exhor- 
tation, the  sentences  occur:     "At  this  table,  consecrated  to  the  Lord, 


332)  Daniel,  Codex  liturgicm,  rll,  162—184.  333)  P.  17 

334)  The  Liturgical  Deterioration,  73—78. 
Kretzmann,  CbrisUan  Art.  19 


290  THE  BOOK  OF  COMMON  PRAYER. 

let  all  eat  and  drink  with  profoundest  emotion!  Let  this  bread  and 
wine  typify  to  you  the  death  of  Jesus  on  the  cross;  and  let  the  eating 
of  this  bread  and  the  drinking  of  this  wine  symbolize  the  participa- 
tion in  all  the  blessings  of  His  death!  May  you  be  deeply  moved  by 
the  surpassing  greatness  and  beauty  of  soul  of  which  this  Divine  One 
gave  evidence  when  for  your  salvation  He  permitted  His  body  to  be 
broken  and  His  blood  to  be  shed,  and  died  upon  the  cross!  Come  to 
Him,  then,  as  it  is  natural  for  good  people  to  do,  with  ardent  grati- 
tude. .  .  ."  The  Words  of  Institution  are  treated  thus:  "Let  all  hear 
the  invitation  of  Jesus  Himself  to  His  Supper!  After  this  manner 
spake  the  Lord  when  He  took  bread,  brake  it  praying,  and  distributed 
it:  Take,  eat,  this  is  My  Body,  which  shall  soon  be  offered  for  your 
benefit.  Repeat  this  in  remembrance  of  Me!  Thus  spake  the  Lord 
when  He  afterward  also  prayerfully  passed  the  cup  around:  Take, 
drink,  this  is  My  Blood;  which  shall  soon  be  shed  for  your  benefit!" 
A  Form  of  Distribution  reads:  "Use  this  bread  in  remembrance  of 
Jesus  Christ ;  he  that  hungereth  after  pure  and  noble  virtue  shall  be 
filled.  —  Drink  a  little  wine;  he  that  thirsteth  after  pure  and  noble 
virtue  shall  not  long  for  it  in  vain!"  The  Lord's  Prayer  was  muti- 
lated thus:  "Most  High  Father:  Let  it  be  our  supreme  purpose  to 
glorify  Thee;  Let  truth  thrive  among  us;  Let  virtue  already  dwell 
here  as  it  does  in  heaven;  Reward  our  industry  with  bread.  And  our 
forgiving  disposition  with  grace;  From  severe  conflicts  preserve  us; 
And  finally  let  all  evil  cease;  That  Thou  art  powerful,  wise,  and  good 
over  all  —  let  this  forever  be  our  confidence." 

Some  of  the  other  examples  quoted  are  still  more  incredible  and 
astounding.  And  the  humiliating  fact  in  connection  with  this  review 
is  this,  that  in  spite  of  all  reconstruction  across  the  sea  some  of  the 
Pietistic  and  Rationalistic  leaven  still  clings  to  the  Lutheran  services 
in  many  parts  of  our  country.  It  is  only  by  continued  effort  and 
patient  education  that  the  last  remnants  of  this  sad  period  in  the 
history  of  our  Church  may  be  removed. 


CHAPTER  8. 
The  Book  of  Common  Prayer. 

There  can  be  no  reasonable  doubt,  as  eminent  English  liturgiolo- 
gists  have  shown,  that  the  ancient  liturgy  of  England  was  derived 
from  Ephesine  or  Gallican  sources,  reaching  England  in  the  last  part 
of  the  second  or  in  the  third  century  by  way  of  Lyons.  This  suppo- 
sition is  supported  by  a  greater  mass  of  evidence  than  that  of  any 
other  derivation.  It  is  certain  that  there  was  constant  and  lively 
intercourse  between  Cornwall,  Wales,  and  Britain,  on  the  one  hand, 
and  Gaul,  on  the  other.    And  the  resemblances  to  the  Gallican  Kite 


THE  BOOK  OF  COMMON  PRAYER.  291 

which  are  found  in  the  English  Rite  are  of  a  nature  to  preclude  al- 
most the  possibility  of  any  other  influence.  The  second  revision  of 
the  Vulgate  was  used,  the  same  Paschal  cycle  appears,  the  proper 
prefaces  are  undoubtedly  of  the  same  origin  as  in  the  Gallican  Rite. 
Then,  also,  the  position  of  the  benediction  is  significant,  the  prayers 
for  the  departed  exhibit  a  striking  similarity,  the  use  in  the  ritual 
anciently  of  only  two  liturgical  colors,  white  and  violet,  the  wording 
of  the  rubrics  "shall  say''  or  "let  him  say" :  all  these  features  stamp 
the  use  of  England  as  one  which  is  most  assuredly  related  closely  to 
the  Gallican  form.335) 

In  449  occurred  the  Anglo-Saxon  invasion  under  the  leadership 
of  Hengist  and  Horsa.  Although  the  purpose  of  the  invaders  was 
primarily  the  conquest  of  the  country,  yet  they,  together  with  the 
West  Saxons  which  followed  them  toward  the  end  of  the  century, 
directed  their  enmity  also  against  the  religious  faith  of  the  inhabi- 
tants. "The  rage  of  the  English."  says  Green,  "seems  to  have  burned 
fiercest  against  the  clergy.  The  priests  were  slain  at  the  altar,  the 
churches  fired,  the  peasants  driven  by  the  flames  to  fling  themselves 
on  a  ring  of  pitiless  steel."  The  greater  part  of  Britain  was 
thoroughly  anglicized  and  the  Christian  Britons  either  reduced  to 
slavery,  killed,  or  driven  to  the  mountains  and  fastnesses  of  Cornwall 
and  Wales.  Nevertheless,  a  remnant  clung  to  their  faith  in  spite  of 
persecution  and  death. 

Since  the  greater  part  of  what  is  now  England  was  now  again 
under  pagan  dominion,  it  became  necessary  to  win  the  coimtry  for 
the  second  time.  The  opportunity  came  when  Aethelberht,  king  of 
Kent,  and  overlord  over  the  southern  and  southeastern  part  of  the 
island,  married  Bertha,  the  daughter  of  the  Frankish  king,  Charibert 
of  Paris,  who  was  a  Christian,  like  her  Frankish  kinsfolk.  "A  Chris- 
tian bishop  accompanied  her  from  Gaul  to  Canterbury,  the  royal  city 
of  the  kingdom  of  Kent,  and  a  ruined  Christian  church,  the  church 
of  St.  Martin,  was  given  them  for  their  worship."  ^36)  This  gave 
Gregory  the  Great,  at  that  time  pope,  an  opportunity  to  send  mis- 
sionaries to  England.  He  despatched  the  monk  Augustine,  who 
landed  in  597  and  was  soon  made  archbishop  of  Canterbury.  Accord- 
ing to  the  account  of  Bede,  he  was  soon  made  aware  of  the  fact  that 
the  old  British  or  Celtic  Church  had  persisted  in  spite  of  the  oppres- 
sors and  intended  to  keep  its  ancient  rites.  Gregory,  who  was  pru- 
dent as  well  as  energetic,  gave  Augustine  the  right  to  collect  into  a 
sort  of  bundle  the  best  usages  of  Rome,  of  Gaul,  or  of  other  churches. 
In  spite  of  this  concession,  however,  Augustine  did  not  succeed  in 
winning  the  Britons  over  to  the  Roman  rule.    It  was  not  \mtil  668, 


335)  Cp.  Gwynne,  Primitive  Worship  and  the  Prayer  Book,    Chap- 
ter VII.  336)  Green,  History  of  the  English  People,  17. 


292  THE  BOOK  OF  COMMON  PRAYER. 

when  Theodore  of  Tarsus  was  made  archbishop  of  Canterbury,  that 
much  progress  was  made.  Although  Theodore,  to  some  extent,  trea- 
ted the  British  Christians  in  a  high-handed  way,  he  was  also  wise 
enough  to  make  concessions,  and  thus  gained  many  friends.  During 
the  next  centuries  papal  rule  gradually,  but  surely,  won  acknowledg- 
ment. The  Anglo-Saxon  Church  went  into  complete  vassalage  to  the 
papal  see,  and  the  state  was  subjected  to  ecclesiastical  dominion. 

In  spite  of  all  these  changes,  however,  the  Celtic  and  the  Scotch 
Liturgy  continued  in  use  beside  the  Roman,  and  many  of  the  remote 
dioceses  retained  their  ancient  organization.  The  Scottish  Eite  per- 
sisted till  the  eleventh  century,  and  that  of  the  Church  of  Wales  even 
to  the  year  1200.  In  the  mean  time,  the  Norman  conquest  materially 
changed  the  situation  in  England.  The  pressure  brought  to  bear 
upon  isolated  dioceses  and  parishes  retaining  the  ancient  forms  was 
becoming  increasingly  burdensome.  It  was  then  that  St.  Osmund, 
of  Salisbury,  about  1085,  revised  the  Hturgy  into  national  uniformity. 
Working  upon  the  basis  of  the  Use  of  Kouen,  he  nevertheless  in- 
cluded certain  features  of  the  ancient  Galilean  Rite  in  his  revision, 
in  certain  prayers  and  lections,  in  the  form  of  the  marriage  cere- 
mony, etc.  Thus  the  Use  of  Sarum  came  into  existence  (ca.  1087). 
Other  bishops  did  the  same  for  their  dioceses,  in  much  the  same  man- 
ner. We  therefore  find  uses  of  York,  of  Hereford,  of  Bangor,  of 
Lincoln.  Some  of  these  have  been  published  by  the  Henry  Bradshaw 
Society,  that  of  York  by  the  Surtees  Society.  The  complete  Roman 
Rite  was  used  in  the  monasteries  throughout  the  country.  Thus 
matters  stood  until  the  beginning  of  the  16th  century. 

In  1516,  the  prelude  to  the  great  anthem  of  the  Reformation  was 
sounded  when  the  ancient  Use  of  Sarum  was  amended  and  revised. 
This  recasting  was  based  upon  the  Leonian,  the  Gelasian,  and  the 
Gregorian  forms,  but  still  showed  very  strongly  the  influence  of  the 
Galilean  Rite.  In  1541,  after  the  movement  of  the  Reformation  had 
found  its  adherents  throughout  England,  a  second  revision  of  the 
Salisbury  Rite  was  undertaken,  following  a  reprint  of  the  earlier 
liturgy,  in  1531,  and  a  revision  of  the  Missal,  in  1533.  By  1548,  the 
new  movement  had  become  so  strong  that  Cranmer  and  other  English 
scholars,  who  had  directed  their  attention  to  liturgical  and  doctrinal 
formulas,  with  a  decided  Lutheran  tendency,  were  ordered  to  prepare 
a  short  form  for  the  Communion,  in  English.  Meanwhile  a  commit- 
tee to  amend  the  service  books  had  been  appointed,  in  1543,  and  in 
1544  the  Litany,  done  into  English  by  Cranmer,  had  been  published. 
Bishop  Shaxton,  of  Salisbury,  was  chairman  of  the  committee  for  an 
English  liturgy,  being  succeeded  by  Cranmer  of  Canterbury.  The 
books  whose  revision  became  the  task  of  the  committee  were:  Porti- 
forium,  Legenda,  Antiphonarium,  Graduale,  Psalterium,  Troparium, 


THE  BOOK  OF  COMMON  PRAYER.  293 

Ordinale,  Sacramentarium,  Missale,  Manuale,  Pontificale,  and  others. 
The  ritual  which  was  finally  adopted  was  indebted  chiefly  to  the  Re- 
formation of  Cologne,  1543.  The  Simplex  et  Pia  Deliberatio  had 
been  drawn  up  for  Hermann,  Archbishop  and  Elector  of  Cologne,  by 
Bucer,  and  revised  by  Melanchthon.  The  subject-matter  is  derived 
chiefly  from  the  Brandenburg- Nuernberg  Church  Order  of  1533,  the 
Order  of  Herzog  Heinrich,  drawn  up  by  Justus  Jonas,  1536 — 1539, 
and  the  Hesse-Cassel  Order  of  1539.  These  were,  in  turn,  influenced 
strongly  by  Luther's  German  Mass  of  1526.  The  Latin  form  of  the 
Cologne  Ritual  appeared  in  1545,  and  it  was  translated  and  published 
in  London  in  1547.  The  committee  undoubtedly  made  use  of  a  great 
deal  of  other  material,  also.  The  Sarum  Use,  for  one,  which  had 
been  made  obligatory  by  the  Convocation  of  1541,  was  used  exten- 
sively, as  was  the  Breviary  of  Quignon,  1535 — 1537.  The  various 
Primers,  Marshall's  of  1535,  Hilsey's  of  1539,  and  the  King's  of  1545, 
were  also  consulted.  The  result  of  these  liturgical  labors  appeared  as 
"The  Book  of  the  Common  Prayer  and  Administration  of  the  Sacra- 
mentes,  and  Other  Rites  and  Ceremonies  of  the  Churche:  after  the 
Use  of  the  Churche  of  England,"  being  ratified  by  Parliament  in 
January,  1549,  and  placed  in  use  since  June  9  of  that  year. 

The  order  for  the  chief  sen'ice,  that  of  the  Communion,  accord- 
ing to  the  Prayer  Book  of  1549  was  the  following:  1)  Collect  for 
Purity  (from  Sarum  Missal),  2)  Kyrie,  3)  Gloria  in  excelsis,  4)  Salu- 
tation and  Response,  5)  Collect  for  the  day,  6)  Epistle,  7)  Gospel, 
8)  Xicene  Creed,  9)  Exhortation  (based  on  Volprecht's  of  Nuernberg, 
10)  Passages  of  Scripture,  instead  of  Offertory,  11)  Salutation  and 
Response,  12)  Sursum  Corda,  13)  Preface,  14)  Sanctus,  15)  Prayer 
of  Consecration  and  Words  of  Institution  (based  on  Sarum,  Cassel, 
and  Cologne),  closing  with  Lord's  Prayer,  16)  Pax,  17)  Christ,  our 
Paschal  Lamb,  is  offered  up,  etc.,  18)  Invitation,  19)  Confession 
(based  on  Cologne),  20)  Absolution  (based  on  Cologne),  21)  Com- 
fortable Words  (Cologne),  22)  Prayer  of  Humble  Access  (Roman), 
23)  Distribution  (during  which  Agnus  Dei  is  sung),  24)  Scripture 
Passage  after  Communion,  25)  Salutation,  26)  Prayer  of  Thanks- 
giving (Brandenburg- Nuernberg)  .^^) 

The  First  Prayer  Book  of  Edward  YI,  as  it  is  now  called,  did 
not  receive  the  unqualified  endorsement  of  the  English  clergy.  Some 
found  it  too  Lutheran,  others  pronounced  it  too  Roman.  It  was  re- 
garded either  very  irreverently  or  not  at  all  by  a  great  portion  of  the 
clergy.  The  Council  found  it  necessary  to  address  a  letter  to  Bonner, 
Bishop  of  London,  July  23,  1549,  admonishing  him  to  redress  the 
neglect  and  contempt  of  the  Book  of  Common  Prayer.    Moreover,  the 


337)  Cp.  Jacobs,  The  Lutheran  Movement  in  England,  Chapter  XIX. 


294  THE  BOOK  OF  COMMON  PRA^B. 

old  service  books  were  abolished  in  1550.  Nevertheless,  it  was  deemed 
exi)edient  to  publish  a  Second  Book  of  Common  Prayer,  in  1552,  in 
the  faint,  but  what  afterwards  proved  the  vain,  hope  of  conciliating 
certain  radicals.  By  this  time,  Calvinistic  influences  were  becoming 
apparent  in  England,  and  there  are  evidences  of  this  in  the  new  ser- 
vice book.  The  title  of  the  Communion  Service,  which  had  been 
"The  Supper  of  the  Lord  and  the  Holy  Communion,  commonly  called 
the  Mass,"  was  changed  to  read  *'The  Order  for  the  Administration 
\}i  the  Lord's  Supper,  or  Holy  Communion."  The  Ten  Command- 
ments were  inserted,  the  Lord's  Prayer  was  transferred  to  the  Post- 
communion  service,  the  Gloria  in  excelsis  to  a  position  after  the 
Thanksgiving  Collect,  the  Livocation  of  the  Holy  Ghost  was  omitted, 
the  vestments  of  the  ministers  were  simplified.^^)  Li  1553,  upon  the 
accession  of  Mary,  the  book  was  suppressed. 

Fortunately,  the  reign  of  Mary  lasted  but  five  years,  long  enough, 
indeed,  to  work  a  great  deal  of  harm.  With  the  accession  of  Eliza- 
beth, the  old  Latin  form  of  the  Catholic  Church,  which  had  been  re- 
stored in  1554,  was  abolished,  and  preparations  made  for  the  publi- 
cation of  a  service  book  in  English.  The  work  was  based  largely  upon 
the  Prayer  Books  of  Edward  VI,  and  the  result  represents  a  skilful 
compromise  between  the  two.  The  revised  book  of  1552  had  savored 
strongly  of  Calvin's  order,  since  it  was  prepared  by  Bucer,  Martyr, 
Cranmer,  and  others,  aU  of  whom  had  developed  Calvinistic  tenden- 
cies. In  the  Prayer  Book  of  Elizabeth  the  vestments  were  reintro- 
duced at  the  option  of  the  priests,  the  Introits  and  Antiphons  were 
omitted,  also  the  metrical  hymns.  The  Book  had  a  better  fortune 
than  its  predecessors.  It  was  almost  universally  accepted  by  both 
elergj'  and  laity,  only  189  out  of  a  total  of  9400  clergy  refusing  to 
subscribe  a  declaration  that  the  book  was  in  accordance  with  the  true 
Word  of  God.339)  In  1560  the  Prayer  Book  was  published  in  Latin, 
for  the  use  of  the  clergy,  the  universities,  and  the  public  schools  (the 
preparatory  schools  for  the  imiversities) .  In  the  same  year,  the  Irish 
Parliament  passed  the  Act  of  Uniformity,  authorizing  exclusively  the 
newly  revised  Prayer  Book  of  Elizabeth,  and  allowing  the  use  of  the 
Latin  language.  A  translation  for  the  use  of  the  Irish  people  was 
made  by  Nicholas  Walsh,  in  1571. 

There  were  no  alterations  in  the  Book  which  was  now  acknow- 
ledged to  be  the  Common  Prayer  Book  till  the  next  century.  The 
Conference  of  Hampton  Court,  held  on  Jan.  14,  1604,  and  the  fol- 
lowing days,  made  only  slight  alterations  in  the  text.  After  that, 
there  was  quiet  for  more  than  fifty  years,  so  far  as  questions  regard- 
ing the  liturgy  are  concerned. 


338)  Jacobs,  Chapter  XIX;  Humphrey,  On  Book  of  Common  Prayer, 
Cnapter  III.  339)  Humphrey,  Chapter  lU. 


THE  BOOK  OF  COMMON'  I'RAYEK.  295 

Meanwhile  the  Eeformation  had  made  progress  also  in  Scotland, 
and  the  question  of  a  liturgy  had  strongly  agitated  the  minds.  The 
Order  of  Geneva,  drawn  up  by  John  Knox  in  1562,  was  authorized 
by  the  General  Assembly  in  1564.  But  it  met  with  such  determined 
resistance  that  it  never  obtained  general  currency,  and  soon  fell  into 
disuse.  A  revision  of  the  Prayer  Book  for  Scotland,  by  Maxwell  and 
Wedderbum,  usually  ascribed  to  Laud,  was  authorized  by  a  royal 
proclamation  in  1636,  and  first  used  in  July,  1637.  The  riots  which 
followed  were  so  serious  that  its  general  introduction  was  abandoned. 
There  was,  at  the  same  time,  an  increasing  number  of  people  in  Eng- 
land, with  pronounced  Calvinistic  views,  that  were  not  satisfied  with 
the  liturgy.  In  order  to  effect  a  compromise,  if  possible,  the  Con- 
vocations of  Canterbury  and  York  were  empowered  by  royal  license 
to  make  a  revision  of  the  Prayer  Book.  The  result  appeared  in  1662 
and  was  approved  by  Parliament.  A  few  concessions  had  been  made 
to  the  Presbyterians,  so  far  as  externals  were  concerned,  the  Epistles 
and  Gospels  were  given  according  to  the  Authorized  Version  of  1611, 
and  a  ne\V  Preface  and  Calendar  of  Proper  Lessons  was  prefijced.  In 
spite  of  the  efforts  to  conciliate  the  Non-Conformists,  the  Book  was 
a  failure  in  this  respect.  As  a  consequence,  about  two  thousand  In- 
dependent, Baptist,  and  Presbyterian  ministers  were  obliged  to  leave 
their  benefices  and  go  forth.^^O)  The  .Irish  Church  formally  adopted 
the  revised  Prayer  Book  in  1666.  A  proposal  to  revise  the  liturgy  in 
England,  in  1689,  never  matured,  and  the  Book  of  1662  is  in  use  to 
the  present  day.  though  there  is  a  Ritual  Commission  in  existence 
since  1867. 

The  Scottish  Book  of  1637  was  revised  in  1764  and  has  been  in 
use  ever  since.  Upon  this  Rite  is  based  the  American  Book,  which 
was  adopted  in  1789,  as  the  ritual  of  the  Protestant  Episcopal  Church 
in  the  United  States  of  America.  In  1877,  the  Prayer  Book  in  Ire- 
land was  revised,  the  new  book  serving  the  Ancient  Catholic  and 
Apostolic  Church  of  Ireland.^^i) 

The  order  of  the  chief  service  in  the  Anglican  Church  is  the  fol- 
lowing: Lord's  Prayer;  Collect  for  Purity;  Ten  Commandments, 
read  in  their  longest  form,  and  responded  to  by  the  people  with  a 
E[yrie ;  Collect  for  the  King ;  Collect  of  the  Day ;  Epistle,  the  congre- 
gation seated;  Gospel,  the  congregation  standing;  Nicene  Creed; 
Announcements ;  Psalm  sung  by  Congregation ;  Sermon ;  —  Sentences 
read  at  altar  with  reference  to  offering  then  taken  (Matt.  5,  16;  6, 
19.  20;  7, 12.  21;  Luke  19, 8;  1  Cor.  9,  7. 11;  13. 14;  2  Cor.  9,  6.  7,  etc.) ; 
General  Prayer;  Exhortation  and  Invitation;  Confession  and  Abso- 
lution; Comfortable  Words  (Matt.  11,  28;  John  3,  16;  1  Tim.  1,  15; 


340)  Gwynne,  Primitive  Worship  and  the  Prayer  Book,  Chapter  XI. 

341)  Cp.  Humphrey,  Chapter  III;   Gwynne,  Chapter  XII. 


296  THE  BOOK  OF  COMMON  PKAYER. 

1  John  2,  1);  Preface,  with  Sursum  corda  and  Proper  Preface; 
Prayer  of  Humble  Access;  Prayer  of  Consecration,  with  Words  of 
Institution;  Communion  of  Priests  and  Distribution;  Prayers  of 
Oblation  and  Thanksgiving:  Lord's  Prayer,  Prayer  of  Memorial  or 
Oblation,  Thanksgiving,  Gloria  in  excelsis;  Blessing  (Phil.  4,  7); 
Final  Kubrics.^*^) 

The  minor  services  and  occasional  acts  of  the  Anglican  Church 
are  especially  interesting  from  a  Lutheran  standpoint,  because  so 
many  parts  may  be  traced  back  to  Lutheran  sources.**3)  The  Matins 
or  Early  Morning  Service  combines  the  former  Matins,  Lauds,  and 
Prime  of  the  canonical  hours,  and  the  Evensong  includes  the  Vespers 
and  Compline.  Luther's  proposal  concerning  the  Morning  Prayer 
had  been  included  in  his  "Deutsche  Messe  und  Ordnung  des  Gottes- 
dienstes,  1526."  He  suggested  that  a  few  Psalms  be  sung,  followed 
by  a  sermon  on  the  Epistle  of  the  day;  then  an  Antiphon  and  the 
Te  Deum  Laudamus  or  Benedictus  antiphonally,  with  the  Lord's 
Prayer,  a  Collect,  and  Benedicamus  Domino.^^*)  This  simple  service 
is  almost  exactly  that  of  the  Prayer  Book  of  1549,  the  number  of 
Lections  agreeing  with  the  number  of  Psalms,  but  the  sermon  being 
omitted.  A  similar  agreement  may  be  noted  with  regard  to  the 
Evening  Services  or  Vespers.  Li  Lections,  the  English  reformers 
followed  Luther's  "Kegister  of  Epistles  and  Gospels."  So  far  as  the 
order  of  Baptism  is  concerned,  the  form  of  the  English  Church  was 
borrowed  principally  from  the  Lutherans.  The  opening  Exhortation 
is  condensed  from  Luther's  original  formula;  the  Prayer  follows 
Luther  closely;  the  Sign  of  the  Cross  is  taken  from  the  Reformation 
of  Cologne;  the  Collect  is  that  which  was  adapted  for  infant  baptism 
by  Luther ;  the  Exorcism  contained  the  substance  of  Luther's  vigorous 
formula;  the  Gospel  Lesson  Mark  10  was  taken  from  Luther;  the 
Collect  is  taken  verbally  from  a  Ljitheran  Order;  and  the  rest  of  the 
form  follows  Luther's  very  closely.  The  Address  to  the  Sponsors  is 
based  on  the  Brandenburg-Xuernberg  Order  of  1533,  which  was  pat- 
terned after  Osiander's  of  1524.  The  order  of  Confirmation  may 
likewise  be  traced  to  Lutheran  influence,  notably  that  of  Cologne. 
At  present  the  idea  seems  to  be  held  as  a  principle  that  confirmation 
in  olden  times  was  restricted  to  the  apostles  and  bishops,  and  that 
therefore  its  present  use  should  recognize  the  same  limitations.  As 
for  the  Marriage  Ceremony  of  the  Book  of  Common  Prayer,  it  is  de- 
rived from  the  ancient  English  form,  through  the  Use  of  Sarum, 
with  additions  from  Lutheran  orders.     The  Exhortation,  the  Ring 


342)  Blunt,  Annotated  Book  of  Common  Prayer,  315 — 406;   Alt,  Der 
kirchliche  Gottesdienst,  295—302;    Gwynne,  Cnapters  XIII — XXVI. 

343)  Cp,  Jacobs,    The    Lutheran    Movement    in    England,    Chapters 
XX— XXII.  344)   10,  233. 


REVIVAL  OF  LITUKGICAL  INTEREST  IN  OEBMANY.  297 

Ceremony,  and  the  Formula  of  Marriage  were  modeled  after  Luther's 
Traubuechlein  of  1529.  In  regard  to  the  formula  of  the  Visitation 
of  the  Sick,  the  compilers  of  the  English  book  adopted  the  order  of 
the  Reformation  of  Cologne,  originally  found  in  the  Saxon  Order 
of  1539. 

It  is  most  unfortunate,  from  the  standpoint  of  Biblical  truth  and 
unity  of  the  Church,  that  the  influence  of  Luther  and  his  work  upon 
England  was  not  more  lasting.  From  1520  to  1553  his  books  were 
eagerly  studied,  as  Jacobs  shows,^*^)  anj  their  leavening  power  can 
plainly  be  recognized,  not  only  in  the  English  Bible  translations,  but 
also  in  the  Ten  Articles  and  even  in  the  Thirty-nine  Articles,  beside 
the  Book  of  Common  Prayer.  But  the  two  churches  now  no  longer 
have  anything  in  common.  There  was  some  opportunity  for  a  re- 
vision upon  a  Biblical  basis,  when  the  Episcopal  Church  of  the  United 
States  issued  the  Book  Annexed,  in  1886,  since  the  alterations  pointed 
in  the  direction  of  the  First  Prayer  Book  of  Edward  VI  and  there- 
fore were  more  Lutheran  in  type,  but  no  approach  resulted,  nor  is 
there  one  likely  to  come  about.  It  appears  rather  that  a  word  of 
warning  to  Lutherans  may  be  in  place  not  to  pattern  the  liturgical 
part  of  their  services  after  the  order  or  in  the  manner  of  the  Angli- 
can Church.  The  liturgy  is  a  confession,, and  its  standing  as  such 
should  be  maintained. 


,  CHAPTER  9. 

Revival  of  Liturgical  Interest  in  Germany. 

It  is  a  matter  of  thankful  consideration  and  congratiilation  that 
Rationalism  did  not  succeed  in  abolishing  all  liturgical  feeling  in 
Germany  and  the  other  countries  where  it  held  sway  for  about  a  cen- 
tury. The  learned  Gerbert  defended  the  traditional  form  of  worship 
with  considerable  skill,  although  from  the  Catholic  standpoint.  And 
there  were  always  some  pastors  whose  feeling  of  liturgical  tact  and 
doctrinal  requirement  prompted  them  to  retain  the  ancient  Lutheran 
form  of  service  or  to  salvage  at  least  some  of  the  parts  out  of  the 
wreckage.  But  the  large  mass  of  the  people  knew  little  but  the  shal- 
low, subjective  forms  of  an  attenuated,  emaciated  liturgy,  to  which 
the  description  "without  form  and  void"  could  most  fitly  be  applied. 

The  awakening  came  at  the  beginning  of  the  last  century.  Mar- 
heinecke,  in  his  Homiletics,  published  in  1811,  once  more  aroused  an 
interest  in  the  Lutheran  cultus.  Three  years  later,  on  Sept.  14,  1814, 
the  Publicandum  of  the  King  of  Prussia  was  issued.  Although  the 
reigning  house  was  heart  and  soul  for  the  Union,  and  the  last  steps 
for  unionizing  the  state  church  were  even  then  being  taken,  the  eflFort 


345)  Chapters  I— XVII. 


298  REVIVAL   OF  LITUEGICAL  INTEREST  IN   GERMANY. 

at  restoration  of  the  liturgy  is  worthy  of  notice.  The  following  state- 
ment of  the  Publieandum  is  significant:  "The  liturgies  are  in  part 
so  incomplete  and  in  part  so  dissimilar  and  imperfect  that  many 
things  are  left  to  the  arbitrariness  of  the  single  Aiinisters,  and  that 
the  uniformity  of  ecclesiastical  customs,  which  is  one  of  the  main 
conditions  for  its  beneficent  effects,  is  lost  almost  entirely."  ^^)  "In 
1816  appeared  the  Liturgy  for  the  Court  Church  of  Potsdam  and  the 
Garrison  Church  at  Berlin,  and  in  1822  the  Kirchen-Agenda  for  the 
Court-  and  Dome-Church  in  Berlin,  whose  principal  author  was  King 
Frederick  William  III.  It  was  revised  1823  and  1826.  This  was  an 
epoch-making  work,  for  it  went  back  to  the  old  Agendas  and  gave  an 
impulse  to  renewed  liturgical  study."  ^47)  According  to  this  Agenda, 
the  Sunday  service  contains  the  following  parts:  I.  The  Liturgical 
Part:  1)  Opening  Hymn;  In  the  name.  .  .,  Our  help  is  in  the  name. . .; 

2)  Confiteor,  with  prayer   for  mercy   and  the   confession   of   sins; 

3)  Verse  after  Confession,  corresponding  to  the  Introitus;  4)  Gloria 
Patri;  5)  Kyrie  eleison,  three  times;  6)  Gloria  in  excelsis,  with  the 
addition  from  the  ancient  forms  for  festivals;  Y)  Salutation  and  Re- 
sponse; 8)  Collect;  9)  Epistle,  with  Versicle  or  Hallelujah  in  response; 
10)  Gospel,  with  Praise  be  to  Thee,  O  Christ,  in  response;  11)  Creed; 
12)  Versicle  after  Creed,  in  place  of  the  ancient  Psalm;  13)  Preface, 
with  Sursum,  Dignum,  and  Sanctus;  14)  General  Prayer;  15)  Lord's 
Prayer.  II.  The  Didactic  Part:  1)  Hymn  of  the  Sermon;  2)  Sermon, 
preceded  by  apostolic  greeting;  3)  Publicanda;  4)  Blessing  from  pul- 
pit. III.  The  Communion:  1)  Exhortation  to  Communicants;  2)  Col- 
lect for  spiritual  strength;  3)  Consecration  with  Words  of  Institu- 
tion; 4)  Pax;  5)  Distribution,  during  which  Agnus  Dei  or  other 
hymns  are  sung  (formula  of  distribution:  Our  Lord  and  Savior 
Jesus  Christ  says :  This  is  my  body  .  .  .  This  is  my  blood)  ;  6)  Thanks- 
giving of  Postcommunion ;  7)  Benediction  and  concluding  Hymn  or 
Doxology.2^8)  Where  this  order  seems  too  long  for  the  liturgicat 
ability  of  the  congregation,  the  briefer  alternative  was  offered: 
1)  Morning  Hymn  and,  In  the  name  .  .  .;  2)  Confession;  3)  Kyrie  in 
German;  4)  Gloria  in  excelsis,  short  form;  5)  Salutation;  6)  Collect; 
7)  Lection;  8)  Creed;  9)  General  Prayer  and  Lord's  Prayer;  10) 
Hymn;  11)  Prayer,  followed  by  Intercessions,  Thanksgivings,  Pub- 
licanda, etc.;  12)  Benediction  and  final  verse  of  Hymn. 

The  first  result  of  the  publication  of  this  Agenda  was  a  flood  of 
writings  both  for  and  against  its  use  and  the  vindication  of  its 
authorship.  Augusti  wrote  his  "Criticism  of  the  Prussian  Church 
Agenda,"  1823,  which  was  attacked  by  Schleiermacher  in  his  book 


346)  Alt,  Der  kirchliclie  Gottesdienst,  321. 

347)  Horn,  Liturgies,  143. 

348)  Alt,  Op.  cit.,  324—327;   Richards-Painter,  Chapter  XIV, 


RETIVAL  OF  LITURGICAL  INTEREST  IN  GERMANY.  299 

"Eegarding  the  Liturgical  Eight  of  Evangelical  Princes,"  1824,  but 
defended  by  Marheinecke  in  the  answer  "Regarding  the  True  Posi- 
tion of  the  Liturgical  Right,"  1825.  Other  men  that  became  involved 
in  the  controversy  were  Nietsch,  Schultz,  and  Gerlach.  The  King 
answered  upon  the  criticism  in  a  Publicandum  of  May  28,  1825,  in 
which  he  reminded  the  critics  that  he  merely  wished  to  protect  his 
evangelical  subjects  against  the  dangers  and  abuses  of  an  arbitrari- 
ness which  engendered  doubt  and  indifferentism.  But  neither  this 
nor  a  ministerial  rescript  of  July  4,  1825,  had  the  desired  effect,  and 
so  King  Frederick  William  issued,  in  1827,  his  "Luther  in  Relation 
to  the  Prussian  Agenda  of  the  Year  1822."  By  the  year  1830  oppo- 
sition had  gradually  ceased,  and  the  Agenda  was  in  common  use  in 
the  Kingdom  of  Prussia. 

The  way  now  being  opened,  the  work  of  restoration  was  begun  in 
earnest.  Bunsen  issued  his  revised  Capitoline  Liturgy  to  supplement 
the  Prussian.  And  before  long,  the  liturgical  restoration  and  refor- 
mation was  undertaken  in  other  parts  of  Germany,  in  Wuerttemberg, 
Bavaria,  Baden,  and  Saxony.  La  the  last-named  coimtry,  the  work 
of  the  Dresden  Conference  is  worthy  of  special  mention.  More  re- 
cently, the  Agenda  of  Boeckh  is  notable  for  its  excellence. 

Our  summary  would  not  be  complete,  however,  without  a  refer- 
ence to  certain  scholars  who  undertook  the  difficult  task  of  delving  in 
the  tomes  of  half-forgotten  liturgical  lore  and  related  branches  of 
archeology  for  the  purpose  of  making  a  critical  survey  and  restoring 
a  proper  appreciation  of  the  beautiful  and  dignified  forms  of  the  ante- 
Nicaean  and  the  Reformation  Period.  Augusti  led  the  way  in  this 
research  work  with  his  archeological  studies.  He  was  followed  by 
Hoefling,  whose  thoroughness  is  most  delightfully  refreshing,  ^is 
Sacrament  of  Baptism,  1846 — iS,  can  hardly  be  said  to  have  been 
superseded,  even  at  this  late  day.  Close  after  him  followed  Alt  with 
his  Christian  Cultus,  1851  and  1858.  Seldom  had  so  much  material 
pertaining  to  the  entire  Christian  cultus  and  all  its  phases  been  col- 
lected in  the  space  of  such  few  pages,  and  so  excellently  arranged,  as 
in  the  case  of  Alt's  book.  About  the  same  time,  Loehe  of  Neuendet- 
telsau  published  his  Agenda  for  Christian  Congregations  of  the 
Lutheran  Confession,  1853,  which  was  followed,  after  a  few  years,  by 
his  Haus-,  Schul-  und  Kirchenbuch.  His  was  a  rare  liturgical  un- 
derstanding, coupled  with  a  fine  tact  which  make  it  easy  to  forgive 
even  his  Romanizing  tendencies.  Other  names  that  stand  out  promi- 
nently in  this  connection  are  those  of  Gass,  Funk,  Claus  Harms, 
Schweizer,  Vetter,  Goldmann,  Ehrenfeuchter,  Klopper,  Ebrard,  Gaupp, 
Grueneisen,  Koestlin,  Gottschick,  Rietschel,  Sinend,  Schoeberlein, 
Jacoby,  Henkl,  Steinmeyer,  and  others.^^) 


349)  Cp.  Horn,  lAturgiea,  146—155. 


300  REVITAL  OF  LITURGICAL  INTEREST  IN  GERMANY. 

A  few  words  ought  to  be  said  yet  in  regard  to  EQiefoth,  since  he, 
together  with  Loehe,  has  exerted  a  large  measure  of  influence  upon  a 
part  of  the  Lutheran  Church  in  this  country.  He  demanded  a  return 
to  the  best  liturgies  of  the  16th  century,  to  such  as  were  consistent 
with  liturgical  harmony.  He  was  especially  fortunate  in  being  able 
to  point  to  the  work  of  Layritz,  Hommel,  Hoffmann  y.  Fallersleben, 
Wackernagel,  and  others,  who  had  republished  old  liturgical  texts 
and  contrasted  their  beauty  and  the  richness  of  their  content  with 
the  diluted  rituals  of  Pietism  and  Rationalism.  He  was  especially 
insistent  upon  a  living,  practical,  correct  understanding  and  use  of 
liturgical  forms  instead  of  a  dead  copying  of  ancient  rites.  To  meet 
with  this  requirement,  it  is  essential  that  the  congregation  be  in- 
structed in  the  meaning  of  the  ritual,  and  above  all  that  the  congre- 
gation actually  be  present  and  take  part  in  the  services.  But  his 
greatest  concern  was  for  the  proper  restoration  of  the  Communion 
Service.  He  insisted  that  the  Lutheran  Church  has  always  demanded, 
on  the  one  hand  that  the  chief  service  never  take  place  without  com- 
munion, and  on  the  other  hand  that  there  should  always  be  a  hunger 
and  thirst  after  the  Sacrament  which  warrants  such  a  frequent  cele- 
bration. The  true  Lutheran  type  of  service,  he  asserts,  always  has 
the  Communion  as  its  culmination.  In  case  there  were  no  Com- 
munion, the  conclusion  of  the  service  should  always  include  an  Ad- 
monition or  Exhortation  which  should  be  a  part  of  the  liturgy,  in 
order  to  maintain  its  strictly  objective  character.  Kliefoth's  insis- 
tence upon  some  of  these  points  was  so  strenuous  as  to  put  him  under 
the  suspicion  of  Romanizing  tendencies.  The  same  is  true  of  Loehe, 
on  account  of  his  well-known  and  unfortunate  preface  to  the  first 
edition  of  his  Agenda.  The  idea  which  he  enunciated  at  that  time, 
as  though  the  Sermon  and  the  Eucharist  were  twin  mountain  peaks, 
he  emphasized  even  more  strongly  in  the  second  edition,  where  he 
made  the  celebration  of  Holy  Communion  the  center  and  the  object, 
in  which  the  entire  service  culminated,  and  wanted  to  have  the  altar 
to  be  the  ruling  architectural  feature.  On  the  other  hand,  men  like 
Alt  exhibited  a  strong  tendency  toward  unionistic  ideas,  and  therefore 
were  always  in  danger  of  making  concessions  to  the  Reformed  Church. 
As  matters  stand  at  present,  the  liturgy  of  the  Prussian  Union  or 
State  Church  is  used  in  the  congregations  existing  under  its  govem- 
ment,350)  while  the  various  Free  Lutheran  Churches  and  Synods  have 
their  own  ritual,  which  varies  with  the  doctrinal  position  and  the 
liturgical  tendency  of  the  body. 


350)  The  separation  of  church  and  state  does  not  seem  to  have 
been  consistently  carried  out  in  the  new  German  Republic. 


LITURGY  IN   AMERICAN   LUTHERAN   CHURCH.  301 

CHAPTER  10. 
The  Liturgy  in  the  Lutheran  Church  of  America. 

The  Lutheran  Church  of  America  is  recruited  from  many  nation- 
alities, the  chief  exponents  being  the  Swedish,  the  Norwegian,  the 
Danish,  the  German,  the  Finnish,  the  Esthonian  and  Lithuanian,  the 
Polish,  and  last,  but  not  least,  the  English  Lutherans.  The  great 
diversity  of  tongues  made  for  a  great  diversity  of  rites  and  ceremonies. 
Nowhere  is  the  Lutheran  principle  of  freedom  in  nonessentials,  of 
liberty  in  adiaphora,  so  plainly  exemplified  as  in  the  liturgy.  Though 
many -of  the  forms  had  originally  been  based  upon,  or  influenced  by, 
the  forms  of  Luther  or  some  of  the  other  16th  century  leaders,  the 
vicissitudes  of  the  intervening  centuries  had  left  their  mark  upon 
them,  and  there  was  indeed,  in  many  cases,  a  wide  divergence.  But 
in  one  thing  all  the  orders  were  agreed:  the  teaching  of  the  Word 
must  be  the  most  prominent  feature  of  the  service.  A  short  survey 
of  the  Lutheran  liturgical  history  in  America  will  lead  to  a  warmer 
appreciation  of  the  present  situation. 

The  liturgy  of  the  Lutheran  Church  in  Norway  had  been  in- 
fluenced largely  by  the  liturgical  publications  of  Luther  and  Bugen- 
hagen,  the  occasional  ofiices  being  based  upon  the  Enchiridion  of  1538 
and  the  Communion  service  upon  the  Manual  of  1539.  In  1688,  the 
Book  of  Service  of  Bishop  Bagger  appeared.  When  the  successive 
movements  of  Pietism  and  Rationalism  spread  from  Germany,  they 
caused  also  the  Lutheran  service  of  Norway  to  become  meager.  Bast- 
holm  states  that  the  chants,  creeds,  and  blessings  were  omitted,  and  a 
rescript  of  1802  abolished  also  the  Kyrie.  The  Creed  and  the  Gloria 
were  thereafter  used  on  alternate  Svmdays,  and  the  Gospel  was  not 
read  at  the  altar,  but  the  Sermon  was  made  very  prominent.  This 
Order  was  in  force  till  1877,  when  a  reaction  set  in,  followed  by  a 
return  to  older  Lutheran  forms. 

The  first  Norwegian  Order  in  America  evidently  took  into  ac- 
count the  external  circumstances  of  the  poor  settlers,  for  it  contained 
only  the  following  parts:  Opening  Prayer,  Hymn,  Collect,  Epistle, 
Hymn,  Sermon,  General  Prayer,  Blessing,  Hymn,  Collect,  Hynm, 
Closing  Prayer.  The  influence  of  Hauge  is  seen  in  the  absence  of 
responsive  liturgical  parts.  The  Landstad  and  Lindeman  Hynmal 
was  used.  Later  a  revised  Book  of  Sen-ice  was  adopted,  based  mainly 
on  the  Order  of  the  Bavarian  Church.  It  has  the  following  parts: 
Opening  Prayer,  Opening  Hymn,  Confession  of  Sin,  Kyrie,  Gloria, 
Salutation  and  Collect  of  the  Day,  Epistle,  Short  Hymn,  Gospel, 
Apostle's  Creed,  Hymn,  Sermon  preceded  by  Prayer  from  pulpit  and 
closed  with  Gloria  Patri,  General  Prayer,  Hymn,  Preface  (Salutation, 
Sursum  corda,  Gratias  agamus,  Vere  dignum),  Sanctus,  Exhortation, 


302  LITURGY  IN  AMEBICAN  LUTHERAN   CHURCH. 

Lord's  Prayer,  Words  o£  Institution,  Distribution,  Hymn  of  Thanks- 
giving, Thanksgiving  Collect,  Salutation  and  Aaronic  Blessing, 
Closing  Hymn,  Closing  Prayer.^si) 

The  history  of  the  liturgy  in  Denmark  is  identical  with  that  of 
Norway  for  several  centuries,  since  Norway  then  belonged  to  Den- 
mark. After  Bugenhagen's  visit  the  Ordinance  of  Christian  III  was 
adopted  by  the  Diet  in  Odensee,  June  14,  1539.  The  Enchiridion  of 
Palladius  appeared  in  1538,  the  Manual  of  Vormordsen  in  1539,  and 
the  new  edition  of  the  Altar  Book,  in  1556,  was  based  upon  these 
earlier  publications,  just  as  these  had  been  drawn  from  Luther.  The 
Chief  Service  or  Hoeimesse  formerly  was  composed  of  the  following 
parts:  Confiteor  after  Adjutorium,  Introitus,  Kyrie,  Gloria  in  excel- 
sis,  Eesponsory  and  Collect,  Psalm,  Epistle  and  Hallelujah,  Danish 
Hymn  or  Sequence,  Gospel  and  Response,  Credo  (hymn),  Sermon, 
Holy  Communion  (Admonition  to  Communicants,  Lord's  Prayer, 
Words  of  Institution,  Collect,  Benediction,  Hymn  during  Distribu- 
tion), Sanctus,  Agnus  Dei,  etc.,  Aaronic  Blessing.  The  revised  Order 
of  1895  has  simplified  the  Eucharistic  service:  Address  to  Commu- 
nicants, Lord's  Prayer,  Words  of  Institution,  Distribution,  Collect, 
Aaronic  Benediction.352) 

The  Lutheran  Church  in  Iceland  is  only  small,  and  its  members 
in  this  country  are  not  numerous,  but  they  have  their  liturgy  and  are 
guarding  their  cultus  carefully.  Since  Iceland  was  a  dependency  of 
Denmark,  any  movement  in  the  home  country  was  apt  to  reach  the 
island  in  a  short  time.  Thus  the  Reformation  was  introduced  in  the 
latter  part  of  the  16th  century,  after  some  opposition.  In  1589  the 
first  Hymnbook  was  published,  later  the  Graduate,  which  saw  nine- 
teen editions  between  1594  and  1779.  The  service  of  the  Malmo-Book 
was  much  like  that  of  the  ancient  Danish  Church:  Danish  Hymn 
(Adjutorium),  Confiteor,  Absolution,  Introitus  (Hymn),  Kyrie 
(Hymn),  Gloria  in  excelsis.  Salutation  and  Collect,  Epistle,  Hallelu- 
jah, Gospel,  Credo  and  Hymn,  Sermon,  Hymn,  Luther's  Paraphrase, 
Sanctus,  Institution  (Agnus  Dei,  Exhortation,  Distribution,  Thanks- 
giving), Salutation  and  Luther's  Collect  from  Deutsche  Messe,  Bene- 
diction, Ten  Commandments.  Sometimes  the  Praefatio  and  the  Sur- 
sum  corda  were  sung  before  the  Lord's  Supper.  The  influence  of  the 
Postil  of  Veit  Dietrich,  1549,  is  apparent.  The  theological  and  litur- 
gical defects  of  Rationalism  affected  also  the  Icelandic  ritual,  causing 
the  beautiful  liturgical  parts,  the  Introitus,  the  Kyrie,  the  Gloria, 
the  Credo,  the  Praefatio,  the  Sanctus,  the  Agnus  Dei  to  disappear, 
while  the  General  Prayer  was  much  shortened.     In  1869,  there  was 


351)  Cp.  E.  K.  .lohiisen,  in  Memoirs,  VII:  4. 

352)  Cp.  E.  Belfoiir,  in  Memoirs,  II:  6. 


LITURGY  IN  AMERICAN  LUTHERAN  CHURCH.  303 

a  new  revision  of  the  Manual,  introducing  many  Collects  from  the 
German.  The  Icelandic  Synod  in  America  has  already  introduced 
into  its  services  the  Gloria  in  excelsis,  Gloria  Patri,  Kyrie,  Hallelu- 
jah, and  Pro  Offertorio,  and  more  changes  may  be  looked  for.^^^) 

The  I-iUtheran  Church  of  Sweden  was  likewise  indebted  to  Luther 
and  his  colleagues  for  liturgical  material,  though  the  influence  was 
not  so  direct  as  in  other  cases.  The  Handbook  of  1529  was  the  first 
Swedish  Lutheran  Church  Manual.  It  has  the  title  "Baptism  and 
Other  Things."  The  Swedish  Mass  was  published  in  1531,  according 
to  the  form  in  which  it  was  then  conducted  at  Stockholm,  though  it 
had  been  celebrated  in  the  vernacular  for  about  six  years  then.  Its 
parts  include:  Allocution  to  the  Congregation,  Confession  of  Sins, 
Inttoitus  and  Kyrie  with  Gloria  in  excelsis.  Salutation,  Collects, 
Epistle,  Graduale  (Hymn  or  Ten  Commandments),  Gospel,  Apostles' 
or  Xicene  Creed,  [Sermon],  Preface  (no  Offertorium,  but  Salutation, 
Sursum  corda,  etc.).  Consecration  (Words  of  Institution),  Sanctus, 
Lord's  Prayer,  Pax,  Agnus  Dei.  Communion  (Admonition  and  Dis- 
tribution), Swedish  Hymn  or  Nunc  dimittis.  Salutation,  Benedica- 
mus.  Benediction.  The  dependence  of  this  order  upon  Luther's  For- 
mula Missae  of  1523  is  plainly  seen.  Some  changes  were  inaugurated 
by  subsequent  revisions,  especially  by  the  Mass  in  Swedish,  Upsala, 
^541.  In  1576  there  was  an  attempt  made  to  restore  the  Roman 
ritual:  Liturgia  Swecanae  Ecclesiae  Catholicae.  In  1614,  a  revised 
Church  Book  appeared,  according  to  which  the  chief  service  contains : 
Allocution;  Confession  of  Sins;  Kyrie  and  Gloria;  Salutation  and 
Collects;  Epistle  and  Gospel  (with  Swedish  Hymn  as  Graduale): 
Creed  (Apostolic  or  Nicene) ;  Swedish  Hymn ;  Sermon ;  Confession 
of  Sins;  Salutations,  Prefaces,  Consecration,  Sanctus,  Lord's  Prayer; 
Admonition  to  Communicants,  Pax;  Distribution  with  Agnus  Dei; 
Salutation,  Collect  of  Thanksgiving,  Salutation  with  Response,  Bene- 
dicamus.  Benediction,  Swedish  Hymn  pro  exitu.  New  editions  of  the 
Church  Book  appeared  in  1811  and  in  1894,  the  latter  being  especially 
important.  In  the  Augustana  Synod,  the  congregation  reads  the 
Creed  before  the  Sermon,  and  the  Lord's  Prayer  after.  A  feature  is 
the  rhetorical  address:  Holy,  Holy,  Holy,  at  the  beginning  of  the 
service.354) 

The  forms  which  the  German  immigrants  adopted  for  use  in  the 
Lutheran  congregations  were  usually  those  of  the  country  or  district 
from  which  they  came,  with  such  modifications  as  occasion  seemed  to 
warrant.  The  Missouri  Synod  chose  the  Saxon  models  and  introduced 
a  chief  service  with  the  following  parts:    Opening  Hymn;    German 


353)  Cp.  F.  J.  Bergmann.  in  Memoirs.  IV:  9. 

354)  Cp.  N.  Forsander,  in  \Memoirs,  II:   3. 


304  LITURGY  IX  AMEBICAN  LUTHERAN   CHURCH. 

Kyrie  in  rhymes;  Gloria  in  excelsis  (Allein  Gott  in  der  Hoeh,  All 
Ehr  und  Lob);  Salutation  and  Response,  Collect;  Epistle;  Hymn; 
Gospel;  Creed  (Wir  glauben  all);  Sermon;  Confession  and  Absolu- 
tion; General  Prayer,  Intercessions,  Thanksgivings,  Lord's  Prayer, 
Votum;  Create  in  me;  Preface  with  Sanctus;  Lord's  Prayer;  Conse- 
cration; Agnus  Dei;  Communion;  Collect  of  Thanksgiving;  Benedic- 
tion; Gott  sei  gelobet,  or  some  other  concluding  stanza.  In  many 
mission  congregations  the  services  were  much  abbreviated,  often  be- 
coming so  meager,  in  fact,  as  to  remind  strongly  of  the  most  attenua- 
ted forms  of  Rationalism.  The  new  Liturgy  and  Agenda,  entirely  in 
English,  puts  the  Common  Service,  which  had  been  previously  used 
by  the  English  District,  in  first  place,  and  a  translation  of  the  Saxon 
Order  in  second  place.  The  Committee  of  Synod  deserves  the  full 
measure  of  appreciation  for  the  completeness  and  thoroughness  of  the 
orders  and  formulas  here  offered,  for  the  excellent  collection  of  Col- 
lects, and  the  mass  of  Agenda  material  which  it  has  brought  together. 
The  liturgy  of  the  Evangelical  Lutheran  Joint  Synod  of  Wisconsin, 
Minnesota,  etc.,  contains  the  chief  parts  of  the  ancient  Lutheran  ser- 
vice, but  many  of  the  parts  are  abbreviated.  The  form  of  service 
used  by  the  Iowa  Synod  is  based  upon  the  work  of  Loehe,  and  there- 
fore contains  the  principal  parts  of  the  Common  Lutheran  Service. 
The  Buffalo  Synod  based  its  liturgj-  upon  the  ancient  Agenda  of 
Pommerania  and  Saxony,  thus  obtaining  a  fairly  complete  order  of 
services.  It  includes  the  following  parts:  Opening  Hymn  (if  pos- 
sible, closing  with  Gloria  Patri) ;  Kyrie  (in  rhymed  form) ;  Gloria  in 
excelsis;  Salutation  and  Response;  Antiphon;  Collect;  Epistle;  Hymn, 
Gospel  preceded  by  Salutation  and  Glory  be  to  Thee,  O  Lord;  Creed; 
Sermon,  introduced  with  Apostolic  Greeting  and  Prayer;  Lord's 
Prayer;  Publicanda;  Confession  and  Absolution  (with  Retention); 
General  Prayer,  with  Intercessions  and  Thanksgivings;  Hymn;  An- 
tiphon and  Collect;  Benediction.  For  the  Lord's  Supper,  the  follow- 
ing order  was  prescribed:  Hymn  Create  in  me;  Salutation  and  Re- 
sponse; Sursum;  Preface;  Sanctus;  Admonition;  Lord's  Prayer; 
Words  of  Institution;  Agnus  Dei  and  other  hymns  during  Distribu- 
tion; Salutation  and  Response;  Antiphon  and  Thanksgiving  CoUect; 
Benediction;  Closing  Stanza.^^) 

The  antecedent  history  of  the  liturgy  as  now  used  in  the  United 
Lutheran  Church  in  America  goes  back  to  the  time  of  Muehlenberg. 
It  was  he  who.  with  the  assistance  of  Brunholtz  and  Handschuh,  in 
1748,  prepared  the  first  American  Lutheran  Liturgy,  taking  as  the 
basis  of  their  work  the  Liturgy  of  the  Savoy  Congregation  of  London. 
The  Book  of  1748  contained  the  following  forms :  1)  Manner  of  Pub- 


355)  Agcnde,  Luth.  Synode  von  Buffalo.  1888. 


LITURGY  IN  AMERICAN  LUTHERAN  CHURCH.  305 

lie  "Worship;  2)  Baptism;  3)  Bans;  4)  Confession  and  Holy  Com- 
munion; 5)  Burial.^^)  The  Morning  Service  included  the  following 
parts :  Hymn ;  Confession ;  Gloria  in  excelsis ;  Collect  with  Salutation 
and  Response ;  Epistle ;  Hymn ;  Gospel ;  Creed  (metrical) ;  General 
Prayer;  Proclamations  and  Announcements;  Votum;  Hymn;  Collec- 
tion of  Alms;  Closing  Collect  with  Salutation  and  Response;  Bene- 
diction; Closing  Verse.  The  Order  of  the  Lord's  Supper  was 
complete:  Preface  with  Salutation,  Sursum  corda,  and  Sanctus; 
Exhortation;  Consecration;  Invitation;  Distribution;  Benediction; 
Benedicamus;  Thanksgiving  Collect;  Benediction;  Closing  Collect. 
It  was  patterned  after  Saxon  and  North  German  models.  In  1782 
the  resolution  was  passed  to  have  the  Muehlenberg  Liturgy  published. 
This  resolution  was  carried  out  in  1786,  but  the  form  was  altered, 
the  rubrics,  the  Gloria  in  excelsis,  the  Creed,  and  other  parts  being 
omitted.  In  1795,  Dr.  Kunze  of  New  York  published  a  translation  of 
the  Liturgy  of  1786,  and  in  1797,  Rev.  Strebeck  followed  this  up  with 
a  Collection  of  Evangelical  Hymns.  In  1806,  Rev.  Williston  brought 
out  a  Book  of  Hymns  and  Liturgy  of  the  Lutheran  Church.  His 
work  proved  to  be  an  adaptation  of  that  of  1786,  with  the  addition  of 
parts  taken  from  Book  of  Common  Prayer.  It  was  the  first  instance 
of  the  introduction  of  foreign  liturgical  material  into  the  Lutheran 
liturgy  in  America.  In  1817,  the  New  York  Synod  took  the  initiative, 
the  Drs.  Quitman  and  Wackerhagen  publishing,  at  its  instance,  a 
Hymbook  and  Enlarged  Liturgy.  Unfortunately,  the  poison  of  Ra- 
tionalism had  penetrated  into  that  section  of  the  Church,  the  result 
being  a  rationalistic,  liberal,  and  im-Lutheran  production.  From 
that  time,  the  decline  was  rapid.  In  1818,  the  Ministerium  of  Penn- 
sylvania brought  out  an  Agenda  with  almost  no  vestige  of  responsive 
service.  All  the  forms  offered,  especially  that  of  the  Lord's  Supper, 
are  departures  from  the  chaste  and  ancient  forms  of  the  16th  centiiry. 
These  books,  however,  did  not  meet  with  universal  approval,  and 
a  reaction  was  slowly  preparing.  The  Tennessee  Synod,  indeed,  in 
1833  resolved  the  publication  of  a  liturgy,  which  resulted  in  a  book 
based  on  that  of  1786.  It  appeared  in  1843  as  the  Liturgy  or  Book  of 
Forms,  the  Rev.  S.  Henkel  being  the  compiler.  The  responsive  liturgy 
was  omitted.  In  1834  the  New  York  Ministerium  published  a  liturgy 
which  was  approved  by  the  Pennsylvania  Synod  in  1835,  and  by  the 
General  Synod  in  1837.  This  effort  was  again  short-lived,  for  in  1839 
the  Pennsylvania  Synod  appointed  a  committee  for  a  new  edition  of 
the  Liturgy.  This  action  was  seconded  by  the  New  York  Ministerium 
and  by  the  Synod  of  Ohio.    The  new  book  appeared  in  1842.    In  1847, 


356)  Jacobs,  History  of  the  Lutheran  Church,  269—275. 
Kretzmann,  Christian  Art  20 


306  LITURGY  IN  AMERICAN  LUTHERAN  CHURCH. 

an  English  Liturgj^  appeared  which  was  based  on  this.  It  included 
no  responsive  liturgj',  the  minister  doing  all  the  work.  A  turn  for 
the  better  came  in  1850,  when  the  Pennsylvania  Synod  took  the  initi- 
ative in  the  preparation  of  a  new  liturgy,  which  was  published  in 
1855.  It  had  responses  and  all  the  essential  features  of  the  Lutheran 
service.  A  further  improvement  was  made  in  1860,  when  the  English 
liturgy  amended  and  altered  the  forms  then  in  use,  securing  stricter 
conformity  to  ancient  Lutheran  liturgies.  It  was  the  precursor  of 
the  Church  Book.^^")  The  Order  of  Public  Worship,  as  fixed  by  the 
General  Synod  Book  of  1870,  approached  very  closely  to  the  ideal 
Lutheran  form.  The  Chief  Service  included  the  following  parts: 
Opening  Sentences  (In  the  name  .  .  .  .,  The  Lord  is  in  His  Holy 
Temple  .  .  .  .,  From  the  rising  of  the  sun  ....  etc.) ;  Gloria  Patri ; 
Confession  of  Sin  (without  Absolution);  Kyrie;  Apostles'  Creed; 
Gloria  in  excelsis;  Reading  of  Scriptures;  Hymn;  Prayer;  Hymn; 
Collection;  Sermon;  Brief  Prayer  and  Lord's  Prayer;  Hymn;  Bene- 
diction.25^)  The  Kirchenbuch  of  the  General  Council,  which  appeared 
in  1877,  has  practically  all  the  parts  of  the  Common  Service  as  now 
in  use,  with  certain  alternatives  which  gave  a  measure  of  latitude  to 
the  congregations.  It  places  the  Intercessions  and  Thanksgivings  on 
the  pulpit  after  the  Sermon,  with  the  alternative  of  including  them 
in  the  General  Prayer.  The  insertion  of  Hear  us,  O  Lord  God  after 
the  several  paragraphs  in  the  General  Prayer  gave  to  it  the  character 
of  the  Litany.  In  1888  there  appeared  the  order  of  service,  which  has 
since  been  known  as  The  Common  Service  for  Evangelical  Lutheran 
Congregations.  It  was  "compiled  by  a  joint  committee  appointed  by 
the  General  Synod,  the  General  Council,  and  the  United  Synod  in 
the  South."  The  principle  which  governed  the  work  of  securing  a 
Common  Service  was  the  desire  to  present  the  "common  consent  of 
the  Lutheran  liturgies  of  the  sixteenth  century."  It  went  out  at 
Whitsuntide,  1888,  and  has  been  in  use  not  only  in  the  three  bodies 
represented  by  the  joint  committee,  but  also  in  the  Ohio  Synod,  and 
in  the  Missouri  Synod,  the  latter  making  it  the  first  order  of  services 
since  the  publication  of  the  new  Liturgy  and  Agenda.  The  newly- 
formed  United  Lutheran  Church  in  America  has  recently  issued  the 
Common  Service  Book  of  the  Lutheran  Church,  which  represents  the 
combined  labor  of  some  of  the  foremost  liturgiologists  of  the  country. 
A  full  discussion  of  the  Comm\inion  service  according  to  this  Com- 
mon Book  will  be  offered  in  a  special  chapter  below. 


357)  Cp.  D.  M.  Kemerer,  in  Memoirs,  IV:  8. 

358)  Book  of  Worship.  1870. 


LITURGY  OF  REFORMED  CHURCHES.  807 

CHAPTER  11. 
The  Liturgy  of  the  Reformed  Churches  in  America. 

When  Luther  at  Marburg,  in  1529,  uttered  the  memorable  words : 
"Yours  is  a  diiferent  spirit  from  ours,"  he  had  reference  mainly  to  the 
doctrine.  But  his  words  receive  their  application  also  in  externals, 
in  the  cultus  and  in  life.  The  Lutheran  Church  developed  the  science 
of  theology,  the  Keformed  that  of  morals.  The  Lutheran  Church 
emphasized  the  justification  of  a  poor  sinner  out  of  free  grace,  the 
Eeformed  Church  placed  the  Law  into  the  foreground.  The  Lutheran 
Church  gave  prominence  to  the  sacramental  part  of  the  service,  the 
Reformed  Church  was  equally  insistent  upon  the  sacrificial  element. 
Or,  as  Alt  and  Painter  prefer  to  express  it,  the  objective  character  of 
the  services  is  emphasized  by  the  Lutheran  Church,  the  subjective  by 
the  Reformed  Church.  A  sacramental  act  or  ceremony,  as  Melanch- 
thon  explains  in  the  Apologia  Confessionis,  is  every  act  or  ceremony, 
by  and  in  which  God  grants  to  us  what  the  promise  of  the  act  offers. 
A  sacrificial  act  or  ceremony  is  one  in  which  the  worshiper  serves 
God.  All  that  God  offers  in  the  means  of  grace,  the  Word  and  the 
Sacraments,  is  sacramental.  Everything  that  the  worshiper  offers  to 
God,  in  prayers,  anthems,  offerings,  commemorations,  etc.,  is  sacrificial. 

In  the  Lutheran  service  the  sacramental  idea  preponderates.  The 
Absolution  is  an  announcement  of  an  act  of  mercy  on  God's  part,  the 
Lections  are  strictly  objective  because  fixed  in  the  Pericoi)es,  the 
Sermon  largely  doctrinal,  the  exposition  of  the  Word  taking  pre- 
cedence over  the  admonitory  application,  the  celebration  of  the  Lord's . 
Supper  is  the  visible  Gospel,  thy  application  of  the  grace  of  God  to 
the  individual  Christian.  In  the  Reformed  Church,  the  reverse  holds 
true.  The  prayers  are  mainly  extemporaneous  and  therefore  subjec- 
tive, the  hymns,  in  many  cases,  were  composed  with  special  reference 
to  a  certain  admonition,  in  the  sermon  the  text  is  selected  from  the 
standpoint  of  a  special  object  which  the  minister  may  have  in  view, 
exhortation  takes  precedence  over  objective  doctrinal  presentation, 
the  Eucharist  is  a  memorial  service  whose  value  depends  only  upon 
the  devotion  of  the  individual,  the  extent  to  which  a  believer  can  sink 
his  very  essence  into  the  love  of  Calvary. 

This  difference  became  apparent  as  early  as  the  time  of  Zwingli. 
The  provisory  liturgy  which  he  compiled  in  1523  still  had  a  strong 
resemblance  to  Luther's  Formula  missae  of  the  same  year.  It  con- 
tained the  following  parts :  A.  Introit,  Kyrie,  Gloria  in  excelsis,  Col- 
lect, Epistle,  Hallelujah  with  Sequence,  Gospel,  Sermon,  Confession 
of  Faith,  General  Prayer;  B.  Preface  with  Sanctus,  Consecration, 
Distribution,    Prayer    of    Thanksgiving,    Nunc    dimittis,    Benedic- 


308  LITURGY  OF  REFORMED  CHURCHES. 

tion.^"^)  But  Zwingli's  service  deteriorated  with  his  theology.  Li 
his  Fidei  Ratio  of  1530  he  did  not  hesitate  to  assert  that  the  sacra- 
ments not  only  do  not  give  grace,  but  cannot  even  transmit  the  same, 
that  the  visible  sacraments  do  not  bear  the  Spirit  in  themselves,  that 
the  sacraments  are  merely  given  for  a  public  testimony  oi.  the  mercy, 
which  is  pi-eviously  present  for  every  one.  In  his  effort  to  oppose  the 
doctrine  of  the  opus  operatum  in  the  Catholic  Church,  Zwingli  permit- 
ted the  pendulum  to  swing  to  the  other  extreme  of  the  arc,  thus  robbing 
the  Lord's  Supper  of  its  real  value  and  reducing  the  act  of  celebration 
to  a  mere  service  of  commemoration  without  any  transmitted  spiritual 
advantage  but  the  intensifying  of  the  devotion,  due  to  the  ability  of 
the  individual  to  ^ield  to  the  influence  of  the  story  in  a  subjective 
way.  In  a  similar  manner,  Calvin  was  not  in  sympathy  with  any- 
thing that  savored  of  the  Roman  liturgy.  His  idea  was  to  ignore  the 
intervening  centuries  and  go  back  to  apostolic  simplicity  in  his  order 
of  services.  His  Order  of  1536,  in  accordance  with  these  ideas,  had 
the  following  form:  Opening  with  Our  help  is  in  the  name,  Confes- 
sion, Singing  of  Psalm,  Free  Prayer  (for  profitable  hearing  of  the 
Word),  Text  and  Sermon,  Exhortation  to  Prayer,  followed  by  long 
Free  Prayer  with  Lord's  Prayer,  Apostles'  Creed,  Benediction ;  Prayer 
of  Invocation,  Apostles'  Creed,  1  Cor.  11,  23 — 29,  Exhortation  to  Self- 
Examination,  Consecration,  Distribution,  while  Psalms  were  sung  or 
Scripture  read.  Thanksgiving  Collect  and  Prayer  for  proper  accep- 
tance. Nunc  dimittis,  Benediction.^so) 

In  Scotland,  the  form  and  content  of  the  liturgy  was  largely  de- 
termined by  the  labors  of  John  Knox.  During  his  continental  exile 
at  Geneva  and  at  Frankfort-on-the-Main,  he  had  come  iinder  the  in- 
fluence of  Calvin,  and  his  Order  of  Services  shows  the  extent  of  the 
Reformed  sphere  of  power.  It  contained  the  following  parts:  Con- 
fession, Scripture  Lessons,  Singing  of  Psalm,  Prayer  to  Holy  Spirit, 
Sermon,  General  Prayer  embodying  Lord's  Prayer  and  Apostles' 
Creed,  Singing  of  Psalm,  Benediction;  at  Eucharist:  Preface,  Ex- 
hortation, Thanksgiving,  Distribution,  Prayer  and  Thanksgiving, 
Singing  of  103d  Psalm  etc..  Benediction.  Even  this  simple  form  was 
condemned  by  many  as  being  too  complicated  and  too  complex.  The 
tendency  has  been  to  shorten  and  simplify  the  services.  For  the  sake 
of  comparison,  let  us  take  before  us  a  later  liturgy  of  the  Reformed 
Church,  that  of  Hugues  (Celle,  1846).  In  it  are  found  the  following 
parts:  Prelude,  Hymn,  Apostolic  Greeting  (Our  beginning.  .  .  or 
Grace  be.  .  .),  Salutation,  Prayer,  Lections,  Apostolic  Blessing,  Hymn, 


359)  Richards-Painter,  Christian  Worship,  Chapter  XIII;   Alt,  Der 
christliche  Gottesdienst,  273. 

360)  Cp.  Schuette,    Before   the  Altar,    147.    148;     Kichards-Painter, 
Chapter  AIH;  Alt,  273. 


LITURGY  OF  REFOBMED  CHURCHES.  309 

Text  and  Sermon,  General  Prayer  with  Thanksgivings  and  Interces- 
sions, Lord's  Prayer,  Hymn  (Closing  stanzas),  Benediction,  Post- 
lude.3«i) 

The  Puritans  showed  a  decided  tendency  to  simplify  the  services 
to  the  point  of  omitting  the  liturgj-  entirely,  especially  when  they 
came  to  America  and  had  the  usual  difficulties  of  frontier  life  to  con- 
tend with.  Congregationalism  b^an  to  spread  in  America  about  the 
middle  of  the  17th  century.  About  the  same  time,  also,  the  Baptists 
appeared  as  a  separate  denomination,  having  received  toleration  by 
the  Declaration  of  Indulgence  (1687)  and  religious  liberty  under 
William  III  (1688—1702).  Somewhat  later,  before  the  middle  of  the 
18th  century,  Methodism  arose,  soon  extending  its  activity  outside  of 
England,  and  growing  in  influence  in  the  American  colonies  very 
rapidly. 

The  liturgy  of  the  Baptists  is  very  simple.  There  is  a  Prelude 
and  a  Hymn.  The  Lections  are  selected  from  either  the  Old  or  the 
New  Testament,  usually  with  reference  to  the  character  of  the  ser- 
mon. Then  follows  a  Prayer  and  another  short  Hymn.  The  Sermon 
is  not  based  upon  a  system  of  Pericopes,  but  upon  a  text  after  the  free 
choice  of  the  pastor.  The  service  closes  with  Prayer,  Benediction, 
and  a  short  Closing  Hymn. 

The  liturgy  of  the  Presbyterian  Church  in  America,  according  to 
the  Constitution  (Philadelphia,  1907),  is  not  much  more  complete 
than  the  Baptist,  although  a  wide  latitude  is  granted,  and  many  con- 
gregations have  introduced  features  from  liturgical  denominations, 
especially  from  the  Anglican  Church.  According  to  the  Directory  of 
Worship,  the  public  reading  of  Holy  Scriptures  and  the  singing  of 
Psalms  and  Hymns  are  to  be  the  main  features  of  the  Sunday  ser- 
vices. The  service  of  Public  Prayer  is  opened  with  a  short  Prayer. 
Then  follows  a  Psalm  or  Hymn,  then  a  full  and  comprehensive  Prayer. 
In  regard  to  the  Sermon  it  is  stated  that  this  should  not  be  so  long 
as  to  exclude  the  other  and  more  important  duties  of  prayer  and 
praise.  After  the  Sermon  comes  a  Prayer  with  reference  to  the  Ser- 
mon. The  Offerings  are  considered  a  separate  and  specific  act  of 
worship.  The  service  closes  with  a  Hymn  and  the  Benediction.  In 
some  churches,  a  choir  has  charge  of  the  responses  and  versicles  in 
various  parts  of  the  service. 

The  worship  of  Congregationalism  prescribes  an  Order  of  Public 
Worship  which  also  shows  all  the  ear-marks  of  Puritan  simplicity. 
The  order  includes  the  following:  1)  Invocation  (concluded  with  the 
chanting  of  the  Lord's  Prayer),  2)  Singing,  3)  Reading  of  Scriptures 
(Old  Testament,  Gloria  Patri,  New  Testament),  4)  Principal  Prayer, 


361)  Daniel,  Codex  Utunjicus,  III,  74 — 78. 


310  LITURGY  OF  EEFORMED  CHURCHES. 

5)  Singing,  6)  Sermon,  7)  Singing,  8)  Prayer,  9)  Benediction.362) 
This  order,  though  usually  adhered  to,  is  not  rigidly  followed,  the 
freedom  of  choosing  a  form  of  service  to  suit  the  circumstances  being 
stoutly  maintained  in  all  conferences. 

The  Public  Worship  of  the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church,  accord- 
ing to  the  Doctrine  and  Discipline  of  the  Methodist  Episcopal 
C!hurch,363)  contains  more  liturgical  material  than  that  of  any  of  the 
last  named  denominations.  The  influence  of  the  Anglican  Church 
seems  to  have  been  i)ersistent  enough  to  effect  this  and  also  a  certain 
amount  of  hierarchical  structure  in  the  polity.  The  Sunday  Wor- 
ship, after  the  Silent  Prayer,  contains  the  following  parts :  1)  Volun- 
tary (instrumental  or  vocal),  2)  Singing  from  Common  Hymnal 
(standing),  3)  Apostles'  Creed,  4)  Prayer,  concluded  with  Lord's 
Prayer,  5)  Anthem  or  Voluntary,  6)  Lesson  from  Old  Testament, 
7)  Gloria  Patri,  8)  Lesson  from  New  Testament,  9)  Notices,  followed 
by  Collection  with  Offertory,  10)  Singing  from  Common  Hymnal, 
11)  Sermon,  12)  Prayer  (the  people  kneeling),  13)  Singing  from 
Common  Hymnal,  14)  Doxology  and  Apostolic  Benediction. 

So  far  as  the  other  Protestant  denominations  are  concerned,  it 
is  hardly  possible  to  speak  of  a  prescribed  liturgy  of  any  kind.  De- 
pending upon  the  minister  or  evangelist  in  charge,  either  the  prayers 
or  the  readings  and  the  sermon  are  emphasized,  and  the  order  varies 
with  the  object  which  is  to  be  attained.  Li  most  evangelistic  services, 
a  sentimental  climax  is  carefully  worked  out,  and  the  exhorters,  choir 
leaders,  and  various  other  officers  and  assistants  are  carefully  drilled 
in  their  role,  in  order  that  everything  may  reach  the  culmination 
according  to  the  prearranged  plan.  The  service  in  such  cases  is  en- 
tirely subjective,  and  the  liturgy,  in  the  proper  sense,  is  wanting  en- 
tirely. In  general,  however,  there  seems  to  be  a  tendency  to  make  the 
services  more  beautiful  by  introducing  liturgical  material,  though 
the  execution  of  liturgical  parts  is  usually  left  to  a  paid  choir. 


362)  Dexter,  A  Handbook  of  Congregationalism,  84.  85. 

363)  Ed.  by  Bishop  Andrews.  1904. 


PART  II. 
Hymnology. 


CHAPTER  1. 
The  Old  Testament  Psalms. 

The  first  Canticles  or  Psalms  of  the  Old  Testament  were  com- 
posed by  Moses.  The  first  one  was  sung  after  the  drowning  of  Pharao 
with  all  his  host  in  the  Red  Sea,  Ex.  15,  1 — 19.  The  second  one  was 
his  swan  song,  composed  at  the  end  of  his  life,  setting  forth  the  per- 
fections of  God,  Deut.  32,  1 — 43.  In  addition  to  that,  we  have  the 
stately  verses  of  Psalm  90,  which  is  ascribed  to  Moses,  the  man  of 
God.  Anothea  Canticle  of  the  early  days  of  Israel  is  Hannah's  song 
of  thankfulness,  1  Sam.  2,  1 — 10.  In  spite  of.  these  early  evidences  of 
poetical  activity  in  the  Jewish  people  (cp.  Judg.  5),  there  is  no  indi- 
cation that  Psalms  or  Canticles  were  used  in  the  service  of  the  taber- 
nacle before  the  time  of  David.  The  services  of  the  tabernacle  were 
probably,  at  that  time,  restricted  to  sacrifices  and  the  work  connected 
with  their  preparation. 

When  the  ark  of  the  covenant  was  brought  up  to  Mount  Zion, 
2  Sam.  6,  12 — 19,  the  arrangement  of  the  liturgy  and  its  music  was 
very  simple.  The  three  chief  singers,  Asaph  the  Gersonite,  Heman 
the  Kohathite,  and  Ethan  or  Jeduthun  the  Merarite,  played  the  cym- 
bals or  leading  instruments,  while  the  fourteen  musicians  who  were 
their  assistants  were  divided  into  sections,  eight  playing  the  nabla 
and  six  the  cither,  1  Chron.  15,  17 — 29.  On  special  occasions,  other 
musical  instruments  were  used,  as  when  the  ark  was  brought  up, 
"David  and  all  the  house  of  Israel  played  before  the  Lord  on  all  man- 
ner of  instruments  made  of  fir  wood,  even  on  harps,  on  psalteries,  and 
on  timbrels,  and  on  cornets,  and  on  cymbals,"  2  Sam.  6,  5.  Asaph 
remained  with  the  ark  in  the  tent  on  Mount  Zion,  the  other  chief 
singers  with  their  choirs  were  sent  to  Gibeon,  where  the  tabernacle 
was  then  still  standing.  This  was  the  beginning  of  the  liturgical 
service  which  accompanied  the  sacrificial  worship. 

Later  David  organized  the  sacred  music  in  a  most  elaborate  man- 
ner for  the  temple  service.  He  divided  the  musicians  and  singers  by 
lot  into  twenty-four  orders  (1  Chron.  25),  in  conformity  with  the 
twenty-four  orders  of  the  priests  in  the  regular  work  of  the  temple. 
Each  division  with  its  head  contained  twelve  men,  making  a  total  of 
288  men,  singers  and  musicians.  They  were  on  duty  for  both  the 
morning  and  the  evening  sacrifice,  1  Chron.  23,  30.    During  the  en- 


312  THE  OLD  TESTAMENT  PSALMS. 

tire  service,  the  temple  orchestra  accompanied  the  singing,  and  at  the 
end  of  each  Psalm,  when  a  pause  occurred  in  the  singing,  the  priests 
sounded  the  silver  trumpets,  and  the  people  prayed.  This  order  of 
David  was  continued  during  the  Golden  Age  of  the  Jews.  The  liturgy 
at  the  dedication  of  Solomon's  temple  must  have  been  especially  im- 
pressive, for  "the  singers,  all  of  them,  of  Asaph,  of  Heman,  of  Jedu- 
thun,  with  their  sons  and  their  brethren,  being  arrayed  in  white 
linen,  having  cymbals  and  psalteries  and  harps,  stood  at  the  east  end 
of  the  altar,  and  with  them  an  hundred  and  twenty  priests  sounding 
with  trumpets:  it  came  even  to  pass,  as  the  trumpeters  and  singers 
were  as  one,  to  make  one  sound  to  be  heard  in  praising  and  thanking 
the  Lord;  and  when  they  lifted  up  their  voice  with  the  trumpets  and 
cymbals  and  instruments  of  music,  and  praised  the  Lord,"  2  Chron. 
5,12.  13;  7,6. 

After  the  time  of  Solomon,  the  manner  and  extent  of  the  worship 
depended,  to  a  large  measure,  upon  the  reigning  king,  whether  he  did 
what  was  good  and  right  in  the  sight  of  the  Lord  his  God,  or  whether 
he  walked  after  the  manner  of  the  pagan  kings  that  remained  for  an 
offense  to  Israel.  The  kings  that  feared  the  Lord  retained  or  restored 
the  temple  service.  Thus  we  are  told  of  Hezekiah  that  "he  set  the 
Levites  in  the  house  of  the  Lord,  with  cymbals,  with  psalteries,  and 
with  harps,  according  to  the  commandment  of  David,  and  of  Gad  the 
king's  seer,  and  Nathan  the  prophet.  .  .  .  And  all  the  congregation 
worshiped,  and  the  singers  sang,  and  the  trumpets  sounded:  and  all 
this  continued  until  the  burnt  offering  was  finished,"  2  Chron.  29, 
25 — 28.  During  the  reign  of  Josiah,  also,  there  was  a  return  to  the 
full  service,  2  Chron.  35,  2—6. 

After  the  Babylonian  captivity,  Ezra  and  Nehemiah  restored  the 
ancient  worship,  Ezra  6,  16 — 22;  Neh.  8,  9 — 18,  but  it  is  doubtful 
whether  the  full  liturgical  services  were  then  attempted.  With  the 
Maccabean  victories,  however,  and  the  prosperity  which  followed  the 
Roman  occupation  of  Judea,  the  ancient  form  of  worship  was  restored 
fully.  It  was  then  that  the  temple  service  reached  the  elaborate,  but 
dead,  beauty  of  which  the  Jewish  writers  speak.  The  splendor  and 
glory  of  the  morning  and  evening  sacrifice  in  the  temple  of  Herod,. as 
well  as  the  still  more  impressive  services  on  the  great  festivals,  can 
hardly  be  conceived  of  in  our  days. 

The  Psalms  were  the  anthems  of  the  Jewish  Church,  their  chan- 
ting forming  the  main  feature  of  the  liturgical  temple  service.  The 
Psalms  which  were  used  in  the  regular  week-day  services  were  the 
following :  on  the  first  day.  Psalm  24,  on  the  second.  Psalm  48,  on  the 
third.  Psalm  82,  on  the  fourth.  Psalm  94,  on  the  fifth.  Psalm  81,  on 
the  sixth.  Psalm  93,  and  on  the  Sabbath,  Psahn  92.  During  the 
special  sacrifice,  which  was  offered  on  the  Sabbath  in  addition  to  the 


THE  OLD  TESTAMENT  PSALMS.  313 

daily  (Num.  28,  9.  10),  the  Song  of  Moses,  Deut.  32,  was  sung,  being 
divided  equally  among  six  successive  Sabbaths,  and  in  the  evening  of 
the  Sabbath  the  Song  of  Praise  (Ex.  15,  1—19.  Cp.  Kev.  15,  3).  On 
the  Festival  of  Trumpets  the  morning  Psalm  was  Psalm  81,  and  that 
of  the  evening  Psalm  29. 

Upon  the  Passover  Festival  the  great  Hallel  wa^  sung,  the  hymn 
which  the  Lord  also  used  at  His  celebration  with  His  disciples. 
Matt.  26,  30;  Mark  14,  26.  It  consisted  in  the  chanting  of  Psalms 
113 — 118,  not  all  at  one  time,  but  in  sections.  They  were  sung  not 
only  on  the  Day  of  Preparation  in  the  temple,  but  also  while  the  meal 
was  in  progress.  The  Talmud  mentions  another  great  Hallel,  which 
occasionally  was  sung  after  the  Passover  meal,  probably  Psalm  136. 
The  first  Hallel  was  called  the  common  or  Egyptian,  in  memory  of 
the  deliverance  from  the  slavery  of  Egypt.  The  great  Hallel  was 
sung  altogether  on  eighteen  days  and  in  one  night:  at  the  Passover, 
as  just  mentioned,  at  Pentecost,  on  the  eight  days  of  the  Feast  of 
Tabernacles,  and  on  the  eight  days  of  the  Feast  of  the  Dedication, 
both  at  the  morning  and  at  the  evening  sacrifice.  During  the  Feast 
of  Tabernacles  there  were  special  sacrifices.  Num.  29,  12  ff.,  and  these 
were  followed  by  special  Psalms.  On  the  first  day  Psalm  105  was 
sung,  on  the  second  Psalm  29,  on  the  third  Psalm  50,  1 — 16,  on  the 
fourth  Psabn  94,  1 — 16,  on  the  fifth  Psalm  94,  1 — 8,  on  the  sixth 
Psalm  81,  1 — 6,  on  the  seventh  Psalm  82,  1 — 5. 

In  addition  to  this  arrangement,  we  have  the  superscription  or 
dedication  of  many  Psalms,  which  gives  us  a  clear  statement  as  to 
their  intended  use.  All  those  which  were  headed  "To  the  chief  musi- 
cian" were  undoubtedly  dedicated  or  transmitted  to  him  for  use  in 
the  temple.  Then,  also,  whenever  the  name  of  a  singer  or  musician 
is  found  at  the  head  of  a  Psalm,  as  Asaph  (Ps.  50;  Ps.  73 — 83),  or 
Jeduthmi  (Ps.  39,  62,  77),  or  Heman  (Ps.  88)  and  Ethan  (Ps.  89), 
the  Levites,  or  the  children  of  Korah,  which  was  a  whole  family  or 
band  of  singers  (2  Chron.  20,  19),  it  seems  to  indicate  immediate 
public  use  of  the  Psalm.  We  may  add  the"  so-called  Psalmi  graduum, 
the  Psalms  of  Degrees  (Ps.  120 — 134).  These  Psalms  were  sung  or 
chanted  either  on  the  fifteen  steps  leading  from  the  Court  of  Women 
to  the  Court  of  Israel  in  the  temple,  upon  the  Feast  of  Tabernacles, 
in  commemoration  of  the  return  from  Babylon  to  Jerusalem,  or  they 
were  used  by  the  festival  pilgrims,  being  sung  by  them  on  their  way 
to  the  capital  city.  A  recent  hypothesis  surmises  the  following  sta- 
tions for  the  use  of  the  various  Psalms  in  this  list :  Psalm  120  upon 
leaving  the  home  town.  Psalm  121  upon  beholding  the  hills  of  the 
Holy  Land,  Psalm  132  at  the  last  stopping-place  before  reaching 
Jerusalem,  Psalm  133  during  the  entry  into  the  city,  Psalm  134  when 
entering  the  temple  gates.     The  remaining  Psalms  which  tell  of  the 


314  THE  OLD  TESTAMENT  PSALMS. 

fall  and  rebuilding  of  Jerusalem  and  the  temple,  were  sung  on  the 
way.364) 

According  to  all  accounts,  the  people  took  little  or  no  part  in  the 
Uturgical  services,  with  the  exception  of  an  answering  Amen  or  Halle- 
lujah at  certain  places  of  the  serv'ice.  This  is  substantiated  by  the 
practical  consideration  of  ability,  since  the  form  of  the  Hebrew  chant 
or  cantillation,  being  more  or  less  melodious  although  entirely  subor- 
dinate to  the  poetry,  required  special  training,  which  the  Levites  re- 
ceived through  their  skilled  musicians.  This  becomes  all  the  more 
evident  if  one  remembers  that  the  Psalms  are  not  written  in  meter 
with  definite  rhyme-schemes  and  caesura,  but  are  constructed  ujwn 
the  parallelism  of  members,  leaving  the  widest  latitude  with  relation 
to  feet  and  accent.  It  was  probably  necessary,  therefore,  to  practise 
•the  cantillation  of  each  Psalm  separately,  a  feat  which  was  virtually 
impossible  even  for  the  members  of  the  Jewish  Church  living  in  Jeru- 
salem, and  entirely  out  of  the  question  for  those  outside  of  the  city. 
So  the  liturgical  service,  as  the  Jewish  accounts  state,  was  confined 
to  the  Levitical  choir,  which  consisted  of  selected  Levites  and  their 
sous  and,  at  least  in  certain  periods  of  Jewish  history,  also  of  female 
voices.  Ezra  si)eaks  of  two  hundred  men  and  singing  women,  Ezra  2, 
65,  and  Jsehemiah  mentions  two  himdred  forty  and  five  singing  men 
and  singing  women,  Neh.  7,  67;  Cp.  1  Chron.  16,  36;  Jer.  33,  11; 
Ps.  26,  12;  68,  26;  Rev.  14,  1—5. 

The  manner  of  rendering  the  Psalms  in  the  service  was  probably 
similar  to  that  of  the  Gregorian  Chant,  which  may  have  been  sug- 
gested by,  or  taken  from,  the  temple  chant.  As  the  later  Christian 
chant,  so  also  the  temple  chant  was  executed  antiphonally,  two  choirs 
alternating,  as  the  forms  of  certain  Psalms  indicate  (Ps.  136;  118, 
2 — 4;  147,  7).  The  melody  seems  to  have  been  sung  in  one  voice 
(2  Chron.  5,  13).  When  the  melodies  were  no  longer  transmitted  by 
oral  tradition,  a  form  of  notation  was  devised  for  the  chants.  The 
reading  of  the  Holy  Scriptures  was  thus  done  by  cantillation,  which 
was  not  a  melodious  anthem,  but  carefully  modulated  declamation, 
certain  accents  denoting  the  inflection  or  intonation  of  the  voice. 
This  mode  of  declamation  is  referred  to  in  the  Talmud,  and  may 
accordingly  have  been  in  use  in  the  early  centuries  of  the  Chris- 
tian era.365) 

The  melodies  according  to  which  the  Psalms  were  rendered,  are 
indicated  in  the  superscription  of  a  few  of  them.  Psalm  22  was  to  be 
chanted  according  to  the  melody  Aijeleth  Shahar,  which  Luther  ren- 
ders "Hind  which  is  hunted  early,"  Psalm  45  has  the  melody  "A  song 


364)  Cp.  Loehe-Hommel,  Hans-,  Schul-  und  Kirchenhuch,  III,  203.  204. 

365)  Loehe,  202.  203. 


THE  OLD  TESTAMENT  PSALMS.  315 

of  loves,"  Psalm  59  Altaschith,  "A  golden  jewel,"  etc.  These  melodies 
were  well-knowu  to  the  singers,  probably  being  taken  from  secular 
songs  or  folk-songs,  as  the  words  indicate.  These  melodies  were  lost 
with  the  temple,  and  even  those  which  the  people  knew,  as  the  Psalmi 
graduum  and  the  Hallel,  did  not  preserve  their  melody. 

The  instruments  which  were  used  by  the  temple  orchestra  pre- 
sented a  wide  variety.  For  the  number  of  instrumental  performers 
was  not  limited,  nor  yet  confined  to  the  Levites,  some  of  the  dis- 
tinguished families  which  had  intermarried  with  the  priests  being 
admitted  to  this  service.  The  rabbis  enumerate  thirty-six  different 
instruments,  fifteen  of  which  are  mentioned  in  the  Bible,  five  in  the 
Pentateuch.  The  principal  musical  instruments  were  the  following. 
The  kinnor  of  David  was  a  small  lyre  or  harp.  The  ugah  "was  either 
a  single  tube-like  flute  or  oboe  or  a  connected  series  like  Pan's  pipes 
or  the  syrinx.  The  toph  was  a  hand-drum  or  tambourine,  the  shophar 
a  curved  tube  of  metal  or  ram's  horn,  the  hazozerah  a  long  silver  tube 
or  trumpet,  the  nehel  a  harp  or  guitar,  the  chalil  a  pipe,  oboe,  or 
flageolet,  and  the  magrephah  a  form  of  organ  used  in  the  temple,  but 
whether  merely  for  signals  or  for  accompanying,  is  not  known.  David 
is  named  as  the  inventor  of  the  ten-stringed  nevel  or  lute.  The  flute 
was  played  upon  the  occasion  of  the  twelve  special  festivities,  on  the 
first  and  second  Passover,  the  first  day  of  Unleavened  Bread,  Pente- 
cost, the  eight  days  of  the  Feast  of  Tabernacles,  also  for  the  Psalms 
of  Degrees  or  Ascent  by  the  pilgrims,  at  marriage  feasts,  and  at  fu- 
nerals. Cp.  Gen.  4,  21;  31,  27;  Ex.  19;  Josh.  6;  Num.  10,  2—8; 
2  Chron.  5,  12.  13;  29,  26—28;  13,  12—14;  1  Sam.  10,  5;  2  Sam.  6,  5. 
14.  15;  1  Chron.  16,  5.  6;  23,  5;  2  Chron.  5,  12—14;  Ezra  3,  10.  11.366) 
The  word  Selah,  which  occurs  so  often  in  the  Psalms,  indicated  either 
an  instrumental  interlude  or  flourish  or  the  fact  that  at  this  point 
the  people  bowed  in,  prayer.367) 

The  description  which  Edersheim  gives  of  the  regular  service 
with  Psalm  singing  gives  a  good  idea  of  the  beautiful  and  impressive 
mode  of  worship.  "Upon  this  the  temple  music  began.  It  was  the 
duty  of  the  priests,  who  stood  on  the  right  and  left  of  the  marble 
table  on  which  the  fat  of  the  sacrifices  was  laid,  at  the  proper  time  to 
blow  the  blasts  on  their  silver  trumpets.  There  might  not  be  less 
than  two  nor  more  than  120  in  this  service;  the  former  in  accordance 
with  the  original  institution,  Num.  10,  2,  the  latter  not  to  exceed  the 
number  at  the  dedication  of  the  first  temple,  2  Chron.  5,  12.  The 
priests  faced  the  people,  looking  eastwards,  while  the  Levites,  who 


366)  Dickinson,  Muaic  in  the  History  of  the  Western  Church,  Chap- 
ter I;  Edersheim,  The  Temple,  Chapter  III. 

367)  Dickinson,  32. 


316  HYMNS  IX  THE  EARLY  CHURCH. 

crowded  the  fifteen  steps  which  led  from  the  Court  of  Israel  to  that 
of  the  Priests,  turned  westwards  to  the  sanctuary.  On  a  signal  given 
by  the  president,  the  priests  moved  forward  to  either  side  of  him  who 
struck  the  cymbals.  Immediately  the  choir  of  the  Levites,  accom- 
panied by  instrumental  music,  began  the  Psalm  of  the  day.  It  was 
sustained  by  not  less  than  twelve  voices,  with  which  mixed  the  deli- 
cious treble,  from  selected  voices  of  young  sons  of  the  Levites,  who, 
standing  by  their  fathers,  might  take  part  in  this  service  alone  .  .  . 
The  Psalm  of  the  day  was  always  sung  in  three  sections.  At  the 
close  of  each  the  priests  drew  three  blasts  from  their  silver  trumi)ets, 
and  the  people  bowed  down  and  worshiped.  This  closed  the  morning 
service."  ^68) 


CHAPTER  2. 
Hymns  in  the  Apostolic  and  Ante-Nicean   Church. 

The  New  Testament  contains  some  of  the  most  beautiful  can- 
ticles of  the  entire  Scriptures.  Therefore  the  praise  service  of  the 
early  Church  had  a  splendid  mass  of  material  to  select  from.  All  the 
canticles  of  the  Old  Testament,  not  only  those  of  Moses,_  Hannah,  and 
Deborah,  but  the  collection  of  Psalms  and  the  glorious  poetry  of  the 
prophets  had  been  codified  and  was  in  common  use  in  the  Jewish 
Church,  to  which  all  the  twelve  apostles  belonged,  as  well  as  Paul,  the 
great  teacher  of  the  Gentiles.  And  not  only  that,  but  the  inspired 
hjanns  of  the  New  Testament  were  written  at  an  early  date  in  the 
books  of  the  Christian  Church,  and  were  probably  known  in  wide 
circles  even  before  the  apostles  and  evangelists  committed  them  to 
paper.  The  Magnificat  of  Mary,  Luke  1,  46 — 55,  the  Benedictus  of 
Zacharias,  Luke  1,  68 — 79,  the  Gloria  in  excelsis,  Luke  2,  14,  and  the 
Nunc  dimittis  of  Simeon,  Luke  2,  29 — 32,  belong  to  this  list.  They 
were  bound  to  receive  special  reverence  and  regard  in  the  eyes  of  the 
Christians,  because  they  were  so  closely  connected  with  the  story  of 
the  Savior.  Both  facts  may  therefore  be  assumed :  in  the  first  place 
that  the  early  Christians  received  much  from  the  Jewish  ritual,  with 
the  inference  that  the  Hebrew  melodies  werl  borrowed  at  the  same 
time;  and  in  the  second  place  that  there  was  soon  evident  a  depen- 
dence upon  Greek  influence,  introduced  with  the  wider  acceptance  of 
that  language. 

The  latter  fact  is  supported  by  evidence  from  the  epistles  of 
St.  Paul.  Eph.  5,  19  he  writes:  "Speaking  to  yourselves  in  psalms; 
and  hymns,  and  spiritual  songs,"  and  he  rei)eats  the  same  phrase  Col. 


368)  The  Temple.  171.  172. 


HYMNS  IN  THE  EABLY  CHUBCH.  317 

3,  16.  The  Psalms  are,  of  course,  those  from  the  book  of  that  name. 
The  hymns  may  easily  be  identified  with  the  canticles  which  were 
enumerated  above.  And  as  for  the  odes,  there  is  no  reason  for  re- 
jecting the  assertion  that  the  spiritual  songs  were  composed,  not  only 
by  Mary  and  Zacharias  and  Simeon,  but  by  many  other  members  of 
the  early  Church  as  well.  Surely  where  the  charisma  of  glossolalia 
was  common,  the  inspiration  to  write  odes  containing  the  praises  of 
God  and  the  Savior  could  not  have  been  lacking  (Cp.  Acts  16,  25). 
Says  Dr.  Stoeckhardt  in  his  commentary  on  Ephesians :  "It  does  not 
seem  so  unsuitable  if  we,  with  reference  to  the  word  psalmoi,  think 
of  the  Biblical  Psalms,  which  were  surely  sung  at  an  early  date  in  the 
services  of  the  Christians;  with  relation  to  hymnoi  of  the  anthems  of 
prayer  and  praise  which  were  composed  by  Christian  hymn-writers, 
which,  corresponding  to  our  chorals,  were  mainly  intended  for  the 
public  services;  and,  with  reference  to  odai  pneumatikai,  of  all  the 
spiritual  beautiful  songs,  'spiritual'  as  distinguished  from  secular, 
which  were  sung  in  the  homes  of  the  Christians,"  p.  236. 

As  a  matter  of  fact,  we  have  evidence  that  hymns  and  spiritual 
songs  were  in  general  use  in  the  time  of  the  apostles.  The  singing  of 
a  hymn  "with  one  accord,"  Acts  4,  24 — 30,  certainly  points  in  that 
direction.  Other  passages  which  are  decidedly  liturgical  in  appear- 
ance and  may  well  be  portions  of  ancient  hjTnns  are  Eph.  5,  14;  1  Tim. 
3,  16;  6,  15.  16;  2  Tim.  2,  11—13;  Kev.  1,  4—8;  5,  9—14;  21,  10—14; 
22,  17.  Other  liturgical  quotations  were  discussed  above,'  Part  I, 
Chapter  II.  If  one  considers,  also,  that  the  verb  psallein  is  freely 
used  in  the  Xew  Testament  for  the  singing  of  Psalms  and  hymns, 
Eph.  5,  19;  Rom.  15,  9  (Ps.  18,  50);  1  Cor.  15,  15;  Jas.  5,  13,  the 
evidence  becomes  all  the  stronger.  It  is  safe,  then,  to  say  that  at  the 
end  of  the  first  century  there  were  not  only  many  spiritual  songs  and 
newly-composed  hymns  in  general  use  in  the  Church,  but  there  were 
also  definite  liturgical  chants  or  canticles,  whose  use  was  practically 
universal.  They  were  the  following:  1)  The  Lesser  Doxology  or  the 
Gloria  Patri,  2)  The  Greater  Doxology  or  the  Gloria  in  excelsis, 
3)  Tersanctus,  4)  Hallelujah,  5)  Evening  Hymn,  with  Nunc  dimittis, 
6)  Benedicite  or  Song  of  the  Three  Children,  7)  Magnificat,  8)  Te 
Deum.'''^)  There  may  be  some  doubt  as  to  the  last,  because  some 
students  do  not  wish  to  drop  the  Ambrosian  authorship,  but  the  list 
otherwise  is  safe  enough.  We  might  even  add  the  Amen,  1  Cor.  14, 
16,  the  KjTie,  Luke  18,  38,  the  Pax,  John  20,  21,  the  Pater  Noster, 
and  others. 

Progress  was  rapid  in  the  second  century.  Ignatius  of  Antioch 
(beginning  of  second  century)  is  said  to  have  introduced  antiphonal 


369)  Cp.  Daniel,  Thesaurus  hymnologicus,  II,  289. 


318  HYMNS  IN  THE  EARLY  CHUECH. 

chanting.  So  there  was,  at  that  time,  both  choir  singing  and  alter- 
nate or  responsive  singing.  This  is  corroborated  also  by  the  Younger 
PJiny,  who,  in  the  letter  quoted  above,  records  that  the  Christians 
were  accustomed  to  sing  responsively  a  hymn  to  Christ  as  God.  In 
the  time  of  TertuUian  the  Church  must  have  had  a  wealth  of  hymns 
and  spiritual  songs,  since  he  speaks  of  them  repeatedly.^"^)  The 
oldest  Christian  hymn  extant,  at  least  in  the  East,  was  the  Greek 
composition  found  in  the  works  of  Clement  of  Alexandria  (170 — 220), 
and  ascribed  to  him.  It  is  a  turgid,  lifeless  Panegyris  tou  log,ou.  The 
Apostolic  Constitutions  speak  of  a  singer  or  precentor  ^^i)  and  hypo- 
phonic  Psalm-singing.  Eusebius  also  refers  to  hymns,  which  he 
styles  "modern  productions  of  modern  men"  in  a  most  matter-of-fact 
way,  showing  that  the  composing  of  hymns  and  the  use  of  hymns  in 
those  days  was  nothing  new  or  unusual. 

The  first  great  era  or  golden  age  of  Christian  hymn-writing  in 
the  early  Church  is  found  in  Syria.  Bardesanes  (154 — 222)  and  his 
son  Honorius  tried  to  spread  their  Gnostic  speculations  by  means  of 
hymns.  Ephraem  the  Syrian  knew  of  a  collection  of  160  psalms 
which  Bardesanes  had  composed  after  the  analogy  of  the  Psalms  of 
David.  The  hymns  of  the  so-called  Acts  of  Thomas  have  also  been 
ascribed  to  Bardesanes.  Certain  it  is  that  he  and  his  son  exerted  a 
tremendous  influence  upon  the  hymn-writing  of  his  time,  and  there 
is  every  reason  to  call  them  the  creators  of  the  Syriac  church  hymn. 
Others  followed  in  their  foot-steps,  and  it  became  a  favorite  method 
of  the  heretics  to  gain  adherents  for  their  views  by  means  of  hymns. 
For  the  common  people  accepted  the  hymns  and  sang  their  way  ever 
more  deeply  into  dualism.  A  mere  prohibition  of  their  use  would 
have  availed  little.  The  rhythm  and  the  melody  had  impressed  these 
compositions  so  deeply  upon  the  minds  and  hearts  that  the  people 
could  not  be  deflected  by  a  peremptory  order.  Therefore  Ephraem 
Syrus  (4th  century,  died  378)  determined  to  meet  the  evil  influence 
with  orthodox  hymns.  It  is  for  this  activity  that  he  was  celebrated 
in  the  ancient  Church,  such  titles  as  "Lyre  of  the  Holy  Ghost"  and 
"Prophet  of  the  Syrians"  being  given  to  him.  He  attained  his  object 
not  only  in  his  day  and  age,  but  his  hymns  had  so  much  intrinsic 
merit  that  they  have  been  retained  in  the  Orient  in  part  to  the  pres- 
ent day.  Many  of  them  are  alternating  songs.  The  Syrians  ascribed 
to  him  a  total  of  12,000  songs,  and  the  Copts  even  14,000,  but  it 
should  be  remembered  that  all  the  songs  of  his  school,  as  well  as  the 
hymns  of  many  lesser  poets  have  been  credited  to  him.  His  best- 
known  hymn  is  the  poem  On  the  Nativity  of  Our  Lord,  with  the 
opening  stanza:    "Into  his  arms,  with  tender  love,  Did  Joseph  take 


370)  Horn,  Outlines  of  Liturgies,  80.  371)  Book  VIII,  §  69. 


HYMNS  DUBING  THE  MIDDLE  AGES.  319 

his  only  son."  A  hymn  is  also  cited  by  Basil  (died  379),  which  has 
the  opening  line  Phos  hilaron  hagias  doxes,  "Hail,  gladdening  Light," 
which  was  used  by  Longfellow.  Clement  of  Alexandria  quotes  a 
poem  from  an  earlier  author  (about  200  A.  D.),  which  we  now  know 
as  "Shepherd  of  Tender  Youth."  Other  hymns  from  the  third  and 
the  beginning  of  the  fourth  century  are :  Echos,  "We  who  have  risen 
from  our  sleep,"  and  Psyche  mou,  "O  soul  of  mine."  As  the  earliest 
hynm  of  all  Duffield  quotes,  not  that  of  Clement,  but  a  very  short 
stanza  to  the  Trinity: 

"My  hope  is  God, 

My  refuge  is  the  Lord, 

My  shelter  is  the  Holy  Ghost; 

Be  Thou,  O  Holy  Three,  adored!"  372) 

So  far  as  antiphonal  singing  is  concerned,  its  development  in  the 
fourth  century  had  reached  the  following  stage.  There  were,  accord- 
ing to  Baeumer,  four  varieties  of  chanting  and  responsive  singing: 
1)  Cantus  respousoriusi  in  which  the  lector  chanted  a  Psalm  by  para- 
graphs and  the  congregation  repeated  each  section;  2)  Cantus  anti- 
phonus,  in  which  two  choirs  alternated  in  chanting  the  Psalms  of 
David;  3)  Cantus  tractus,  in  which  the  Psalm  was  sung  without  in- 
terval or  division  from  beginning  to  end;  4)  Cantus  directaneus,  in 
which  all  those  present  or  the  choirs  together  sang  the  entire  Psalms 
without  pause  or  interlude  tamquam  ex  uno  ore.^"^) 


CHAPTER  3. 
The  Canono-Catholic  and  Roman  Catholic  Periods. 

When  the  Gnostic  and  Arian  heresies  were  spread  by  means  of 
hymns,  the  orthodox  party,  as  we  have  seen,  met  them  on  their  own 
ground,  offering  to  the  people  such  anthems  as  coincided  in  every  re- 
spect with  the  requirements  of  pure  Christianity.  It  was  for  this 
reason,  also,  that  the  Council  of  Laodicea  (343 — 381),  in  its  13th 
canon,  appointed  singers  for  the  churches.  These  choristers  had  the 
special  duty  to  recast  the  secular  melodies  they  desired  to  transplant, 
using  them  mainly  for  the  Psalms  and  canticles.  The  same  council, 
however,  recognizing  the  danger  from  heterodox  hymns,  in  its  59th 
canon  made  the  rule  that  no  psahnoi  idiotikoi  were  to  be  used  in 
church  services.3"<)  The  contrast  which  is  included  in  the  expression 
of  the  council  makes  it  evident  that  it  is  not  so  much  the  Psalms  of 


372)  Duffield,  The  Latin  Hymn-Writers  and  their  Hymns,  Chapter  I. 

373)  Geschichte  des  Breviers,  118  ft. 

374)  Alt,  Der  kirchliche  Oottesdienst,  426,  nota. 


320  HYMNS  DURING  THE  MIDDLE  AGES. 

David  which  should  be  used  to  the  exclusion  of  all  others,  but  that 
uo  one  had  the  right  to  palm  off  inventions  of  his  own,  without  sound 
Scriptural  basis,  on  the  Church,  under  the  guise  of  church  hymns. 

These  resolutions  acted  as  a  great  stimulus,  not  only  upon  Eph- 
raem  Syrus,  as  shown  above,  but  also  upon  other  teachers  of  the 
Church.  There  is  a  hymn  at  the  lighting  of  the  lamps  extant  from 
this  period,  with  the  opening  lines :  "O  gladsome  light  Of  the  Father 
immortal,"  Gregory  of  Nazianz  combined  theological  learning  with 
poetical  ability,  and  his  hymns  have  been  classed  with  the  best  pro- 
ducts of  classical  times.  The  Syrian  poet  Synesius  also  wrote  a  num- 
ber of  poems,  of  which  ten  are  still  extant.  But  they  were  lacking  in 
the  appealing  simplicity  which  would  have  made  them  acceptable  to 
the  great  mass  of  the  people,  and  never  enjoyed  great  popularity.  The 
second  period  of  Eastern  hymn  poetry,  which  began  in  the  second 
quarter  of  the  eighth  century  and  lasted  for  about  a  century,  pro- 
duced a  number  of  poets  whose  compositions  were  far  from  mediocre. 
Among  these  Cosmas,  Bishop  of  Majuma,  Andrew,  Bishop  of  Crete, 
Germanus,  Patriarch  of  Constantinople,  Johannes  Damascenus,  Theo- 
phanes.  Metropolitan  of  Nicea,  and  Joseph,  Deacon  of  Constantino- 
ple, furnished  the  best  hymns.  They  were  especially  prolific  in  fur- 
nishing hymns  to  Mary  and  the  saints,  whose  cult  was  definitely 
established  at  that  period  and  whose  festival  days  required  a  large 
number  of  songs.  In  general,  their  hymns  present  a  fine  narrative 
style  and  objectivity,  thus  meeting  the  principal  demand  of  the  popu- 
lar hymn.  They  were  praised,  accordingly,  not  only  by  their  grateful 
contemporaries,  but  their  importance  is  recognized  even  at  this 
late  day. 

Before  we  continue  our  survey  of  the  development  of  hymnology 
in  the  Western  Church,  it  may  be  well  to  devote  a  few  paragraphs  to 
the  Psalms  and  hymns  of  the  Canonical  Hours,  which  grew  out  of 
the  hours  of  prayer  in  the  primitive  Church  and  were  finally  regulated 
by  Benedict  of  Nursia,  at  Monte  Cassino,  between  Rome  and  K'aples, 
in  the  first  half  of  the  sixth  century.  The  third,  sixth,  and  ninth 
hours  were  observed  by  the  apostles  and  first  disciples.  Acts  3,  1; 
10,  9.  The  first  hours  for  daily  service  of  prayers  which  were  fixed  by 
rule  were  Lauds  and  Vespers.  The  Apostolic  Constitutions  name  the 
third,  sixth,  and  ninth  hours  of  the  morning,  the  evening,  and  at 
cock-crowing.375)  The  Horae  canonic  ae,  as  fixed  by  Benedict  of  Nur- 
sia,  included  the  following  hours:  Vigils,  at  2.00  A.  M.,  Matins,  at 
dawn  (incipiente  luce).  Prime,  at  6.00  A.  M.,  Terce,  at  9.00  A.  M., 
Sext,  at  12.00  M.,  Nones,  at  3.00  P.  M.,  Vespers,  at  6.00  P.  M.,  Com- 


375)  Book  VIII,  Chapter  34. 


HYMNS  DURING  THE  MIDDLE  AGES.  321 

pline,  at  9.00  P.  M.376)  Baeumer  gives  the  following  list:  Matins, 
Lauds,  Prime,  Terce,  Sext,  None,  Vesjier,  Compline,  —  and  Nocturn 
(Book  I).  In  this  case,  the  service  of  Lauds,  which  was  frequently 
joined  with  Matins,  is  given  a  separate  service,  in  order  to  keep  the 
eight  hours  of  prayer.  The  Matin  service  on  certain  days  is  divided 
into  three  parts,  called  Noctums,  but  on  all  ordinary  festivals,  as 
well  as  in  ferial  services,  there  is  but  one  Noctum. 

Matins  is  now  celebrated  just  before  da^vn.  Its  Invitatory  is 
Psalm  95.  A  number  of  Psalms,  averaging  about  twelve,  are  then 
chanted,  with  Antiphon  or  Hallelujah  after  each  Psalm  or  part  of 
Psalms.  There  is  also  a  hymn,  a  lection,  the  Te  Deum,  and  the  Can- 
ticum  de  evangelio,  followed  by  the  Litany  and  the  Lord's  Prayer. 
Lauds  are  held  at  dawn.  Their  purpose  is  the  praise  of  God  for  the 
creation  and  regeneration.  A  feature  of  this  service  is  the  Canticle 
Benedictus.  The  services  of  the  four  smaller  hours,  Prime,  Terce, 
Sext,  and  None,  are  much  alike:  Antiphon,  Hymn,  three  Psalms 
with  Gloria  Patri  after  each  one,  Lection,  Antiphon,  and  Litany.  At 
Vespers,  the  purpose  is  to  look  back  upon  the  blessings  of  the  day 
with  a  grateful  heart,  and  praise  God's  providence  and  grace.  There 
were  four  Psalms  with  Antiphons,  a  Lection  with  Responsorium,  the 
Canticum  de  evangelio  (Magnificat),  the  Litany,  and  the  Lord's 
Prayer.  In  the  service  of  Compline,  the  faithful  looked  back  once 
more,  and  then  "forward  to  the  lowering  night.  He  admonished  his 
soul  to  be  vigilant  and  commended  his  spirit  into  the  hands  of  his 
Lord.  There  were  three  Psalrps  without  Antiphons,  a  Hymn,  a  Lec- 
tion with  Antiphon,  the  Litany,  and  the  Benediction.  Later  the 
Canticle  Nunc  dimittis  was  introduced  as  being  the  most  perfect  and 
all-embracing  prayer  of  commendation.  Every  week  the  Psalter  was 
thus  chanted  complete.  And  the  hymns  for  the  Horae  canonicae,  of 
which  Daniel,  Wackernagel,  and  Milchsack  publish  a  great  many, 
were  often  of  great  beauty.  The  Antiphons,  the  Responsoria,  the 
Te  Deum,  the  Litany,  and  the  Canticles  all  served  to  enhance  the  im- 
pressiveness  of  these  services  of  prayer.^^'^) 

So  far  as  the  general  liturgical  service  of  this  period  is  concerned, 
the  names  of  Ambrose,  Leo,  Gelasius,  and  especially  Gregory  the 
Great,  stand  out  most  prominently.  The  antiphonal  chanting  at 
Milan  was  due  to  Oriental  influence,  through  the  agency  of  Ambrose. 
Augustine  says  of  it:  "How  abundantly  did  I  weep  to  hear  those 
hymns  and  canticles  of  thine,  being  touched  to  the  very  quick  by  the 
voices  of  thy  sweet  church  song.  ...    At  this  time  was  it  here  first 


376)  Memoirs,    II:    5;    Kliefoth,  Die  urspruenyliche   Gottesdienatord- 
nung.  Ill,  186. 

377)  Kliefoth,  L.  c,  186—190;  Loehe-Hommel,  Der  Psalter,  205—209. 

Kretzmann,  Christian  Art.  21 


322  HYMNS  DURING  THE  MIDDLE  AGES. 

instituted,  after  the  manner  of  the  Eastern  churches,  that  hymns  and 
Psahns  should  be  s\mg.  .  .  .,  which  custom  being  retained  from  that 
day  to  this."  3^*)  Ambrosius  was  the  inventor  or  introducer  of  four 
scales  in  the  church  music,  the  Dorian,  the  Phrygian,  the  Aeolian, 
and  the  Myxolydian.  The  Ambrosian  chants  which  were  sung  in 
these  melodies,  were  varied  by  ebullitions  of  melody.  The  simple 
Plain  Song  melodies  were  largely  syllabic,  but  some  of  the  ornate 
chants  were  exceedingly  florid.  Antiphonal  psalmody  was  introduced 
in  Rome  by  Celestine  (422 — i32),  and  Leo  I  (died  461)  established 
the  first  community  of  monks  for  canonical  hours'  service,  which  was 
later  regulated  by  Benedict.  In  the  meantime,  the  Ambrosian  chants 
deteriorated  rapidly,  losing  their  original  simplicity  and  purity. 
Gregory  the  Great  (590 — 604)  undertook  the  great  work  of  reforming 
the  music  of  the  liturgy.  He  extended  the  scales  introduced  by  Am- 
brose to  double  the  original  number,  he  freed  the  Church  from  the 
fetters  of  Greek  prosody,  he  collected  the  existing  chants  and  issued 
an  Antiphonary.  He  became  the  inventor  of  the  Gregorian  Plain 
\  Song  Chant,  which  has  not  lost  its  influence  upon  church  music  since 
that  time.  The  plagal  scales  invented  by  Gregory  were  later  enriched 
by  the  addition  of  four  further  scales,  making  a  total  of  twelve  scales 
used  for  church  songs  and  liturgical  music:  the  Dorian,  in  d;  the 
Hypodorian,  in  a;  the  Phrygian,  in  e;  the  Hypophrygian,  in  b;  the 
Aeolian,  in  f ;  the  Hypoaeolian,  in  c ;  the  Mixolydian,  in  g ;  the  Hypo- 
mixolydian,  in  d ;  the  Lydian,  in  a ;  the  Hypolydian,  in  e ;  the  Ionian, 
in  c;  the  Hypoionian,  in  g.^'^^)  To  secure  the  dignified  simplicity 
which  he  deemed  necessary  for  church  music,  Gregory  insisted  upon 
a  certain  definite  melody  for  each  text,  which  differed  from  the  met- 
rical, rhythmic  singing  of  the  Ambrosians.  Regardless  of  the  meter, 
the  Plain  Song  marched  on  in  stately  grandeur,  the  entire  choir  sing- 
ing one  voice,  whence  it  was  also  designated  as  Cantus  choralis. 
Gregory  founded  a  large  school  in  which  promising  boys  were  in- 
structed in  chanting,  and  it  became  a  rule  that  all  priests  must  be 
well  versed  in  church  music. 

The  Gregorian  Chant  was  soon  brought  to  England,  finding  an 
eager  reception  throughout  the  Church  of  Britain,  the  Council  of 
Cloveshoven  (747)  retaining  it  unchanged  in  all  the  churches.  Char- 
lemagne introduced  the  Gregorian  Chant  into  Germany.  Through 
the  agency  of  the  music  schools  at  Metz,  Orleans,  Sens,  Toul,  Lyon, 
Cambray,  Dijon,  and  Paris,  the  Prankish  kingdom  was  soon  flooded 
with  men  who  were  trained  in  the  new  chant.  Charles  the  Great  also 
encouraged  Rhabanus  Maurus  in  his  work  at  Pulda,  which  resulted 
in  further  schools  at  Reichenau,  Corvey,  Mainz,  and  Trier.^so) 


378)  Confessions,  Book  IX,  Chapters  VI  and  VIII. 

379)  Alt,  Der  kirchliche  Gottesdienst,  393.  394.  380)  Alt,  396. 


HYMNS  DURING  THE  MIDDLE  AGES.  323 

The  choice  of  the  scale  for  the  various  chants  is  controlled  largely 
by  the  significance  of  the  scale  or  its  special  meaning  in  musical  no- 
tation. According  to  Bona,  Antony,  and  Loehe,  the  following  sym- 
bolism is  generally  accepted.  The  Dorian  expresses  gentle  serious- 
ness, dignified  joy,  and  may  be  used  upon  all  general  occasions.  The 
Hypodorian  expresses  longing,  sorrow,  mourning.  The  Phrygian  is 
used  when  lively,  strong  emotion,  eagerness  and  determination,  de- 
cided commanding  and  threatening  are  to  be  brought  out.  The  Hypo- 
phrygian  indicates  gentle  sensations,  it  begs  for  sympathy  and  com- 
passion, and  disarms  passionate  outbursts.  The  Lydian  expresses  joy, 
jubilation,  triumph.  The  Hypolydian  signifies  dignified  joy,  a  peace- 
ful, quiet,  devoted  condition,  humble  devotion,  sympathy.  The  Mixo- 
lydian  expresses  stately,  majestic  gravity,  a  joy  which  is  too  deep  for 
levity.  The  Hypomixolydian  may  represent  the  various  sensations  of 
sweetness,  charm,  and  grace.^si) 

The  hynm-writers  of  the  Western  Church  have  left  so  many  gems 
of  Christian  hymnody  that  it  is  often  difficult  to  make  a  proper  selec- 
tion. Their  great  choir  is  ope^jed  by  Hilary  of  Poitiers  (died  ca.  367), 
whose  Liber  Hymnorum  is  lost.  Yet  the  hymns  which  are  ascribed 
to  him  show  a  poetical  force  which  have  caused  their  retention  in  the 
Church  to  this  day.  Among  these  Lucis  largitor  splendide  (Xhou 
splendid  Giver  of  the  light)  is  the  best-known,  but  Deus,  Pater  in- 
genite  (Eternal  Father,  God),  Beata  nobis  gaudia  (What  blessed  joys 
are  ours),  and  Jam  meta  noctis  transiit  (The  limit  of  the  night  is 
passed)  are  also  of  high  merit.  At  about  the  same  time  Pope  Dama- 
sus  in  Home  introduced  rhymed  and  accented  poetry.  He  composed 
the  hymn  Martyris  ecce  dies  Agathae  (Fair  as  the  morn  in  the  deep- 
blushing  East). 

Much  more  important  and  influential,  however,  were  the  Ambro- 
sian  hymns,  which  found  their  earliest  recognition  in  Spain,  but 
were  soon  accepted  in  every  part  of  the  Western  Church.  Twelve 
hymns  are  recognized  by  the  Benedictine  editors  as  genuine,  all  of 
them  resonant  with  deep,  spontaneous  feeling.  He  wrote  O  lux  beata 
Trinitas  (O  Trinity  of  blessed  light),  Deus  Creator  omnium  (Maker 
of  all,  the  Lord),  Veni,  Kedemptor  gentium  (Eedeemer  of  the  nations, 
come),  Aeteme  renun  Condi  tor  (Creator  blest,  eternal  King),  Aurora 
lucis  rutilat  (Light's  glittering  morn  bedecks  the  sky),  and  others. 

In  the  fifth  century,  a  number  of  poets  of  unquestioned  ability 
made  their  appearance.  Prudentius  (died  between  410  and  424) 
wrote  Xox  et  tenebrae  et  nubila,  Corde  natus  ex  parentis,  and  the 
elegiac  burial-song  lam  moesta  quiesce  querela.  Ennodius,  Bishop  of 
Pavia  (died  521)  is  credited  with  sixteen  hymns,  among  which  are 


381)  Loehe-Hommel,  Der  Psalter,  193.  194. 


324  HYMNS  DURING  THE  MIDDLE  AGES. 

Christe,  lumen  perpetuum  (O  Christ,  the  Eternal  Light),  Christe 
preeaiiiur  (O  Christ,  to  Thee  we  pray),  Christe,  Salvator  omnium 
(O  Christ,  the  Savior  of  all),  and  others.  Caelius  Sedulius  (about 
the  middle  of  the  5th  century)  wrote  the  so-called  Alphabet  Hymn  of 
twenty-three  stanzas,  of  which  A  solis  ortus  cardine  (From  lands 
that  see  the  sun  arise)  and  Hostis  Herodes  impie  (Wliy  fear  the  im- 
pious Herod's  might)  are  the  best-known.  At  the  end  of  the  century 
came  Fortunatus,  whose  best-known  hymn  Vexilla  Regis  prodeunt 
(The  royal  banners  forward  fly)  is  almost  equaled  in  influence  by  the 
Christmas  hymn  Agnoscat  omne  saeculum,  the  Passion  hymn  Pange, 
lingua  gloriosi,  praelium  certaminis,  the  Easter  song  Salve,  festa  dies, 
the  Ave,  maris  stella,  and  the  Quern  terra,  pontus,  aethera.  Gregory 
the  Great  himself  closes  the  list  of  sixth  century  poets,  nine  hymns 
being  ascribed  to  him.  Of  these  the  Primo  dierum  omnium,  Ecce 
jam  noctis,  Lucis  Creator  optime,  and  especially  the  Maundy  Thurs- 
day hymn  Rex  Christe,  Factor  omnium  (O  Christ,  the  heaven's 
Eternal  King)  deserve  more  than  passing  mention. 

In  the  Middle  Ages,  only  a  few  men  stand  out  in  the  earlier 
period.  Beda  Yenerabilis  (died  735),  whose  writings  are  an  encyclo- 
pedia of  universal  learning,  composed  the  hymns  Adesto,  Christe, 
vocibus,  —  Emitte,  Christe,  Spiritum  (Send  forth,  O  Christ,  Thy 
Spirit),  and  Hymnum  canamus  gloriae  (Let  us  sing  a  hymn  of  glory). 
Paul  the  Deacon  (died  795)  wrote  the  hymn  in  honor  of  John  the 
Baptist  L'^t  queant  laxis,  the  initial  syllables  of  whose  first  stanza 
were  used  by  Guide  of  Arezzo  in  introducing  solmisation: 

Ut  queant  laxis 

i^esonare  fibris 

MirSi  gestorum 

Famuli  tuorum 

6^alve  poUuti 

La\>\\  reatum, 

Sancte  Johannes! 
The  hymn  Veni  Creator  Spiritus  (Come,  God  Creator,  Holy  Ghost), 
which  was  formerly  ascribed  to  Ambrose  or  to  Gregory,  is  by  Duffield 
referred  to  Rhabanus  Maurus  (died  856).  This  hymn  is  held  in  very 
regard  by  hymnologists,  some  of  whom  give  it  a  rank  with  the  best 
productions  of  Latin  poetry  of  all  times.  Its  stately  impressiveness 
and  detached  objectivity  marks  it  as  a  product  of  genius. 

The  Choral  School  of  St.  Gall  in  the  9th  and  10th  centuries  was 
especially  prolific  in  sequences  or  tropes,  which  took  the  place  of  the 
long  prolongation  of  the  final  syllables  in  the  Alleluia,  this  being 
protracted  to  cover  the  retreat  of  the  deacon  as  he  walked  from  the 
Epistle-lectern  and  ascended  the  rood-loft  to  chant  the  Gospel.  This 
Alleluia  was  originally  the  only  response  between  the  Epistle  and  the 


HYMNS  DURING  THE  MIDDLE  AGES.  325 

Gospel,  and,  since  the  deacon  had  some  space  to  traverse,  the  ia  was 
nearly  interminable  at  times.  Tutilo  of  St.  Gall  composed  the  Christ- 
mas sequence  Hodie  cantandus,  the  Omnium  virtutum  gemmis,  and 
the  Ascension  trope  Viri  Galilaei.  Notkcr  Balbulus  also  was  the 
author  of  many  sequences  which  were  widely  used  in  the  Church 
during  the  Middle  Ages.382)  To  Notker  is  commonly  ascribed  the 
hymn  or  sequence  Media  vita  in  morte  sumus  (In  the  midst  of  life 
we  are  in  death),  which  is  almost  overpowering  in  its  impressiveness. 
The  list  of  the  early  Middle  Ages  is  properly  closed  with  Robert, 
King  of  France  (997 — 1031),  who  composed  the  sequence  for  Pente- 
cost Veni  Sancte  Spiritus  (Come,  Holy  Spirit).  Duffield  names  Her- 
mannus  Contractus  (died  1054)  as  the  author  of  both  the  Veni  Sancte 
Spiritus  and  the  Salve  Regina;  Mater  misericordiae.  • 

The  twelfth  century  has  several  illustrious  poets.  Tfi  Peter  Da- 
miani  is  credited  the  hymn  Ad  perennis  vitae  fontem.  He  was  sur- 
passed by  Bernard  of  Clairveaux  (born  1091,  died  1153),  a  mystic, 
who  addressed  a  number  of  poems  to  the  members  of  the  suffering 
Savior.  The  most  notable  one  is  the  Salve,  Caput  cruontatum,  which 
proved  an  inspiration  to  Paul  Gerhard.  Abelard  (died  1142)  wrote 
the  hymns  Mittit  ad  virginem,  Ornarunt  terram  germina  (The  earth 
is  green  with  grasses),  O  quanta  qualia  sunt  ilia  sabbata  (O  what 
shall  be,  O  when  shall  be  That  holy  Sabbath  day),  and  others.  Adam 
of  St.  Victor  (died  1192)  wrote  Quem  pastores  laudavere,  Salve  crux, 
arbor  (Hail,  thou  cross),  Verbum  Dei,  Deo  natum  (He,  the  Word  of 
God,  the  fated),  and  possibly  about  a  hundred  other  hymns.  Although 
his  hymns  are  objective,  they  are  altogether  too  detached,  and  are 
therefore  not  singable,  being  too  abstruse.  Other  singers  of  the  12th 
century  are  Peter  the  Venerable  and  Bernard  of  Cluny,  the'latter's 
poem  De  contemptu  mundi  being  written  in  leonine  hexameters. 

The  13th  and  14th  centuries  brought  forth  some  of  the  greatest 
of  all  Latin  poets.  The  first  of  these  is  Thomas  of  Celano  (died  ca. 
1255),  who  grew  up  under  the  influence  of  Francis  of  Assisi,  whose 
biography  he  wrote.  He  composed  the  sequences  Fregit  victor  vir- 
tualis  and  Sanctitatis  nova  signa,  but  above  all  the  world-renowned 
Dies  irae.  Dies  ilia  (Day  of  wrath.  Thy  fiery  morning  Earth  con- 
sumes), which  has  seen  so  many  translations  and  transcriptions  that 
books  have  been  written  on  the  translations  alone.  Passages  of  most 
impressive  beauty  and  power  are  the  10th  and  11th  stanzas :  "Seeking 
me.  Thy  love  outwore  Thee,  And  the  cress,  my  ransom,  bore  Thee, 
Let  not  this  seem  light  before  Thee.  Righteous  Judge  of  my  condi- 
tion. Grant  me  for  my  sins  remission,  Ere  the  day  which  ends  con- 


382)  Cp.  Welche  Seqtienzen  hat  Notker  verfaszt,  in  Zeitschrift  fuer 
detitsches  Altertum,  XV,  267. 


326  THE  PERIOD  OF  THE  REFORMATION. 

trition."  A  still  greater  poet,  hymn-writer,  and  liturgiologist  was 
Thomas  Acquinas  (died  1274),  who  composed  the  Office  for  the  Cor- 
pus Christi  Festival.  He  wrote  the  beautiful  sequence  Lauda,  Sion, 
Salvatorem  (Sion,  lift  thy  voice  and  sing),  and  the  hymns  Pange, 
lingua  gloriosi.  Corporis  mysterium  (Sing,  O  my  tongue,  adore  and 
praise),  Sacris  solemniis  juncta  sunt  gaudia,  and  Verbum  supemum 
prodiens.  To  Bonaventura,  his  contemporary,  the  appealing  Adeste 
fideles  is  ascribed.  One  more  poet  stands  in  the  front  rank,  namely 
Jacoponus  da  Todi  (died  1306),  who  wrote  Cur  mundus  militat  (Why 
should  this  world  of  ours  Strive  to  be  glorious),  but  especially  the 
sequence,  surcharged  with  the  feeling  of  an  anguished  heart,  Stabat 
mater  dolorosa  (At  the  cross,  her  station  keeping).  The  list  of  pre- 
Reformation  Latin  poets  is  fitly  closed  with  Thomas  a  Kempis  (died 
1471),  who  wrote  Adversa  mundi  tolera,  O  qualis  quantaque  laetitia, 
and  Adstant  angelorum  chori,  and  finally  Francis  Xavier  (died  1552), 
who  wrote  the  charming  O  Deus,  ego  amo  Te  (O  Lord,  I  love  Thee, 
for  of  old.  Thy  love  hath  reached  to  me).  We  might  add  the  hymns 
of  a  score  or  more  less-known  writers,  besides  a  great  many  anony- 
mous compositions  of  luiequal  merit,  such  as  Exultet  coelum  gaudi- 
bus,  Deus-Homo  Rex  coelorum,  Puer  nalhis  in  Bethlehem,  In  dulci 
jubilo,  and  others. 

But  of  all  the  Latin  poems,  five  stand  out  from  all  the  rest  and 
have  always  affected  the  hearts  of  men  with  extraordinary  force:  the 
Veni  Creator  Spiritus  is  powerful,  the  Dies  irae  is  grand,  the  Veni 
Sancte  Spiritus  is  charming,  the  Ad  perennis  vitae  fontem  is  lovely, 
and  the  Stabat  mater  is  pathetic.  It  would  by  no  means  be  a  mis- 
fortune if  hymns  of  this  kind  were  known,  studied,  and  appreciated 
more  thoroughly  in  our  age  of  jazz-band  jingles.^^^) 


CHAPTER  4. 
The  Period  of  the  Reformation. 


In  the  Catholic  Church  the  popular  hymn  or  choral  for  the  entire 
congregation  has  not  been  an  integral  part  of  the  service  since  about 
the  eighth  century.  The  church  music  was  entirely  in  the  hands  of 
the  choir.  -rNo  one  will  deny,  of  course,  that  church  music  made  un- 
precedented progress  in  the  next  centuries.  The  Cantus  firmus  of 
the  Gregorian  Chant  was  soon  supplemented  with  a  more  or  less 


383)  For  the  last  paragraphs  Cp.  Diiflfield.  The  Latin  Hymn-Writers 
and  their  Hyrhns,  Chapters  III  to  XXVIII;  Alt,  Der  kirchlich^  Gottes- 
dien^t,  429 — 438;  Horn,  Outlines  of  Liturgies,  81 — 84;  Wackernagel,  Das 
dcuische  Kirclienlied,  Book  I;  Chevalier,  Repertoriuni  hymnologicutn ; 
L»aniel,  Thesaurus  hymnolofiicus ;  Marbach,  Carmina  scriptiirarum;  Milch- 
sack,  Hymni  et  Sequentiae ;  islone,  Lateinische  Hymnen  des  Mittelalters. 


THE  PERIOD  OF  THE  BEFORMATION. '  .     327 

harmonious  voice  in  accompaniment,  known  as  discant,  since  it  left 
the  path  of  the  ancient  cantus.  At  first  there  were  only  these  two 
parts,  the  cantus  firmus  accompanied  by  counterpoint  (punctus  con- 
tra punctum),  the  former  always  taken  from  a  ritual  book  or  from  a 
popular  tune,  the  latter  invented,  as  often  as  occasion  required,  by 
the  singer  desirous  of  providing  change  or  diversion.  Through  the 
efforts  of  Hucbald  of  Rheims  (ca.  900),  Reginus  (920),  Guido  of 
Arezzo,  Franco  of  Cologne,  and  others,  the  new  science  was  gradually 
developed,  harmony  was  introduced,  the  medieval  school  of  a-capella 
music  took  its  rise.  Out  of  the  antique  mnemonic  system  (neumae 
etc.)  there  was  developed  a  system  of  square-headed  notes,  with  a 
staff  of  lines  and  spaces.  The  question  of  long  and  short  notes,  of 
beats  and  bars  was  finally  decided.  Musical  composition  began  to 
appear  about  the  end  of  the  fourteenth  century  in  which  one  voice 
introduced  the  melody  or  theme;  another  voice  followed,  which  was 
in  turn  pursued  by  a  third  and  fourth,  and  sometimes  by  still  more. 
The  resulting  fugues  (fugo)  were  often  productions  of  great  beauty. 
Since  the  use  of  a  connected  text  was  very  difficult  under  such  cir- 
cumstances, a  single  word,  such  as  Amen  or  Hallelujah,  was  chosen, 
and  the  resvilting  composition  was  called  motet  (from  the  French 
mot=word).  These  efforts  at  rendering  the  harmony  of  church  music 
artistic  reached  their  culmination  in  Palestrina  (1526 — 1594),  who 
brought  counterpoint  into  proper  relation  and  perfection.  His  "Mass 
of  Pope  Marcellus,"  with  which  he  gained  the  favor  of  the  church 
dignitaries,  is  considered  the  most  perfect  product  of  Medieval  musi- 
cal art.  It  was  followed  by  other  works  of  many  masters:  masses, 
motets,  and  longer  hymns,  in  which  there  was  often  no  leading  part 
or  voice,  but  a  series  of  voices  running  side  by  side  or  crossing  each 
other.  Orlandus  Lassus  in  Munich,  Andrea  and  Giovanni  Gabrielis 
in  Venice,  Willaert,  and  others  were  among  the  masters  of  that 
age,  the  last-named  introducing  antiphonal  chorus  singing  at 
St.  Mark's.384) 

In  the  mean  time,  the  popular  church-song  in  the  vernacular  had 
been  gaining  foothold  in  Germany  and  the  adjacent  countries.  Since 
the  time  of  Walther  von  der  Vogelweide,  Gottfried  von  Strassburg, 
and  other  minnesingers,  the  popular  spiritual  song  had  exerted  a 
great  influence.  Some  of  the  earliest  Leisen,  as  these  short  hymns 
were  called,  are  Also  heilig  ist  der  Tag,  Christ  ist  erstanden.  Mitten 
wir  im  Leben  sind.  Nun  bitten  wir  den  Heiligen  Geist,  Gelobet  seist 
du,  Jesus  Christ.  Some  of  the  best  Latin  hymns  were  also  translated 
into  the  vernacular  and  used  by  the  people  as  spiritual  folk-songs. 


384)  Cp.    Dickinson,   Music  in   the   History  of  the   Westeim   Church, 
Chapter  V. 


328  ■   THE  PERIOD  OF  THE  EEFORMATION. 

Milchsack  prints  the  following  renderings  into  Middle  German,  as 
found  in  the  collection  of  Flacius  Illyricus:  Kom  du  loser  der  hey- 
denen  (Veiii  Redemptor  gentium),  Uan  des  de  sunne  vn  vp  gheit 
(A  solis  ortus  cardine),  Uigend  Herodes  vngutlich,  wes  bistu  Christo 
hetelich?  (Hostis  Herodes  impie),  Ik  grozt  dy,  meres  sterne  (Ave 
maris  Stella),  Do  de  konig  gotliker  ere  (Cum  rex  gloriae),  and  Loue 
du  schower  dynen  loser  (Lauda,  Sion,  Salvatorem).  Translations  of 
Latin  hymns  were  also  published  by  John  of  Salzburg  (end  of  14th 
century),  Dietrich,  and  others.^^^)  A  very  interesting  feature  of 
these  centuries  are  the  mixed  songs,  half  Latin,  half  in  the  vernacu- 
lar, of  which  a  number  have  been  preserved,  the  Li  dulci  jubilo  of 
Petrus  Dresdensis  (died  1440),  Puer  natus  in  Bethlehem,  and  Ave 
maris  stella  being  the  most  interesting  ones.  These  songs  were  in 
use  in  Germany  as  well  as  in  Prance  and  elsewhere. 

But  all  this  does  not  change  the  fact  that  the  church  hymn  or 
choral,  sung  by  the  congregation,  was  not  included  in  the  church  ser- 
vices before  the  Reformation.  There  are  very  few  service  books  that 
contain  rubrics  which  direct  the  singing  of  even  the  Leisen  Christ  ist 
erstanden  or  Christ  fuhr  gen  Himmel.  In  many  places,  they  were 
permitted  only  at  the  end  of  thv3  Tropes  in  the  morning  service  or  in 
the  liturgical  plays  developed  from  them.  The  change  came  with 
Luther.  "The  German  Reformation  became  great  with  the  church 
hymn,  and  the  church  hynin  became  great  with  the  Reformation" 
(Horn).  The  importance  of  Luther  in  this  field  can  hardly  be  over- 
estimated. He  wrote  his  first  spiritual  song  in  1523,  after  Heinrich 
Voes  and  John  Esch,  of  Antwerp,  had  been  martyred.  Its  title  was 
"A  New  Song  of  the  Two  Martjrs  for  Christ,  Burned  at  Brussels  by 
the  Sophists  of  Louvain."     The    end   was    a   prophetic,    triumphant 

outburst : 

"Summer  is  even  at  our  door. 
'    The  winter  now  has  vanished. 

The  tender  flowrets  spring  once  more, 
And  He,  who  winter  banished 
Will  send  a  happy  summer." 

The  same  year,  Luther  published  two  hymns  on  two  leaves  in  quarto 
size,  one  of  which  was  his  own :  Nun  f rent  euch,  liebe  Christeng'mein 
(Dear  Christians,  one  and  all,  rejoice),  and  the  other  Es  ist  das  Heil 
uns  kommen  her,  by  Speratus.  This  first  congregational  hymn  of 
Luther  was  truly  a  "Christian  hymn,  setting  forth  the  unspeakable 
grace  of  God  and  the  true  faith."  In  the  nqxt  year  appeared  the 
small  hymnal  "Etlich  christlich  Lider,  Wittenberg,  1524,"  containing 
eight  hymns  with  the  melodies,  four  of  them  by  Luther:    Nun  freut 


385)  Alt,  Der  kircJiliche  Gottesdiensf,  438. 


THE  PEBIOD  OF  THE  REFORMATION.  329 

eucli,  Hebe  Christeng'mein,  Ach  Gott  vom  Himmel,  sieh  darein,  Es 
spricht  der  Unweisen  Mund  wohl,  and  Aus  tiefer  Not,  three  by  Spe- 
ratus,  and  one  by  an  unknown  writer.  In  1526  a  collection  of  thirty-nine 
hymns  was  published  at  Erfurt,  and  after  that  the  number  of  hyimis  and 
hymnals  grew  by  leaps  and  bounds.  Luther  left  the  wonderful  heritage 
of  thirty-seven  hynms  and  spiritual  songs.  Alt  divides  them  into  five 
groups.  Transcriptions  of  Psalms  are  found  in  the  following  hymns : 
1)  Ach  Gott  vom  Ilinmael,  sieh  darein,  Ps.  12  (O  God,  look  down 
from  heaven  and  see),  2)  Es  spricht  der  Unweisen  Mund  wohl,  Ps.  14 
(The  mouth  of  fools  doth  God  confess),  3)  Ein  feste  Burg  ist  unser 
Gott,  Ps.  46  (A  mighty  fortress  is  our  God),  4)  Es  woU  uns  Gott  ge- 
naedig  sein,  Ps.  67  (May  God  bestow  on  us  His  grace),  5)  Waer  Gott 
nicht  mit  uns  diese  Zeit,  Ps.  124  (Had  God  not  come,  may  Israel 
say),  6)  Wohl  dem,  der  in  Gottesfurcht  steht,  Ps.  128  (Happy  the 
man  that  feareth  God),  7)  Aus  tiefer  Not  schrei  ich  zu  dir,  Ps.  130 
(Out  of  the  depths  I  cry  to  Thee).  The  second  group  includes  hymns 
based  upon  Bible  passages:  8)  Jesaja  dem  Propheten  das  geschah. 
Is.  6,  1 — 4  (These  things  the  seer  Isaiah  did  befall),  9)  Vater  imser 
im  Himmelreich,  Matt.  6  (Our  Father,  Thou  in  heaven  above), 
10)  \  om  Himmel  hoch  da  konun  ich  her,  Luke  2  (From  heaven  above 
to  earth  I  come),  11)  Mit  Fried  und  Freud  ich  fahr  dahin,  Luke  2, 
29 — 32  (In  peace  and  joy  I  now  depart),  12)  Sie  ist  mir  lieb,  die 
werte  Magd,  Kev.  12,  1 — 6  (Dear  is  to  me  the  Holy  Maid),  13)  Dies 
sind  die  heilgen  zehn  Gebot  (That  man  a  godly  life  might  live), 
14)  Mensch,  willst  du  leben  seliglich  (Wilt  thou,  0  man,  live  hap- 
pily). The  third  group  comprises  transcriptive  translations  of  Latin 
hymns :  15)  Verleih  uns  Frieden  gnaediglich,  after  Da  pacem  Domine, 
an  antiphon  of  the  6th  or  7th  century,  usually  ascribed  to  Gregory 
the  Great  (In  these  our  days  so  perilous),  16)  Gelobet  seist  du,  Jesus 
Christ,  after  the  Grates  nimc  omnes  reddamus  of  Notker  Balbulus 
and  a  pre-Reformation  vernacular  stanza  (All  praise  to  Jesus'  hal- 
lowed name),  17)  Der  du  hist  drei  in  Einigkeit,  from  the  O  lux,  beata 
Trinitas  of  Ambrose  (Thou  who  art  three  in  unity),  18)  Was 
fuerchtst  du  Feind  Herodes  sehr,  from  the  Hostis  Herodes  impie 
(Why,  Herod,  unrelenting  foe),  19)  Komm,  heiliger  Geist,  HErre 
Gott,  after  the  antiphon  Veni  Sancte  Spiritus,  reple  tuorum  corda, 
of  which  an  old  vernacular  stanza  was  in  existence  (Come,  Holy 
Spirit,  God  and  Lord),  20)  Der  Tag,  der  ist  so  freudenreich,  after 
Dies  est  laetitiae,  ascribed  to  Adam  of  St.  Victor,  21)  Nun  komm, 
der  Heiden  Heiland,  a  free  rendering  of  the  Veni  Redemptor  gentium 
of  Ambrose  (Savior  of  the  heathen,  come,  22)  Wir  glauben  all  an 
einen  Gott,  the  Nicene  Creed  (We  all  believe  in  one  true  God), 
23)  HErr  Gott,  dich  loben  wir,  the  Te  Deum  laudamus  (Lord  God, 


330  THE  PERIOD  OP  THE  REFOBMATION. 

Tuy  praise  we  sing),  24)  Christum  wir  soUen  loben  schon,  from  the 
A  solis  ortus  cardine  of  Sedulius  (Now  praise  we  Christ,  the  Holy 
One),  25)  Mitten  wir  im  Leben  sind,  after  the  sequence  Media  vita 
in  morte  sumus  and  a  medieval  vernacular  version,  the  Latin  usually 
credited  to  Notker  Balbulus  (Though  in  the  midst  of  life'  we  be), 
26)  Christ,  der  du  bist  Licht  und  Tag,  after  Christe,  qui  lux  es  et 
dies,  27)  Komm,  Gott  Schoepfer,  Heiliger  Geist,  from  Veni,  Creator 
SpirituR,  probably  by  Rhabanus  Maurus  (Come,  God  Creator,  Holy 
Ghost).  The  third  group  includes  vernacular  songs  recast:  28)  Gott 
sei  gelobet  und  gebenedeiet  (May  God  be  praised  henceforth  and 
blessed  forever),  29)  Christ  lag  in  Todesbanden,  based  on  the  pre- 
Reformation  stanza  and  upon  the  sequences  and  antiphons  Victimae 
paschali  and  Surrexit  Christus  hodie  (In  death's  strong  grasp  the 
Savior  lay),  30)  Nun  bitten  wir  den  Heiligen  Geist  (Now  do  we  pray 
God,  the  Holy  Ghost),  31)  Gott  der  Vater  wohn  uns  bei,  an  old 
Litany  of  Rogation  week  (God  the  Father  be  our  Stay).  The  last 
group  consists  of  hymns  which  were  spontaneous  outbursts  of  song: 
32)  Nun  freut  euch,  liebe  Christeng'mein,  33)  Ein  neues  Lied  wir 
heben  an,  34)  Jesus  Christus,  unser  Heiland,  der  den  Tod  ueberwand 
(Jesus  Christ,  who  came  to  save),  35)  Vom  Himmel  kam  der  Engel 
Schar  (To  shepherds,  as  they  watched  by  night),  36)  Erhalt  uns, 
HErr,  bei  deinem  Wort  (Lord,  keep  us  in  Thy  Word  and  work), 
37)  Christ,  unser  HErr,  zum  Jordan  kam  (To  Jordan  came  our  Lord, 
the  Christ.3^6)  Hymnologists  seem  to  be  agreed  at  present  that  the 
hymn  Der  Tag  der  ist  so  freudenreich,  noted  above,  is  not  by  Luther. 
But  the  hymn  JEsus  Christus  unser  Heiland,  after  the  Jesus  Chris- 
tus, nostra  salus  of  Johann  Huss  (Jesus  Christ,  our  blessed  Savior), 
should  be  inserted.  The  St.  Louis  edition  of  Luther's  works  omits 
also  Christe,  der  du  bist  Licht  und  Tag,  but  has  in  addition,  from 
Wackemagel,  Ein  Lied  fuer  die  Kinder  (Nun  treiben  wir  den  Papst 
heraus),  Auf  dem  Widerwege  zu  singen  (Der  Papst  und  Greul  ist 
ausgetrieben),  Wider  Herzog  Heinrich  von  Braunschweig  (Ach  du 
arger  Heinze),  O  du  armer  Judas,  Eine  andere  Auslegung  des 
128.  Psalms.387) 

Luther  did  not  remain  alone  in  this  noble  work.  Not  only  in 
Wittenberg,  but  throughout  Germany  and  in  other  countries  poets 
began  to  sing  of  the  new  glory  which  had  arisen  over  the  Church. 
The  golden  age  in  the  writing  of  hynms  had  come..  In  the  immediate 
vicinity  of  Luther  there  was  his  friend  Justus  Jonas  (died  1555), 
who  composed  Wo  Gott  der  HErr  nicht  bei  uns  haelt,  wenn  unsre 
Feinde  toben  (Ps.  123),  Der  HErr  erhoer  euch  in  der  Not  (Ps.  20), 


386)  Cp.  Alt,  Der  Mrchliclie  Gottesdienst,  445.  446,  nota. 

387)  ■•0.  1434—1473.    Cp.  Saengerhote,  St.  Louis,  1917,  Nos.  1—4. 


THE  PERIOD  OF  THE  EEFORJIATION.  331 

HErr  JEsu  Christ,  dein  Erb  wir  sind  (Ps.  79),  and  two  additional 
stanzas  to  Luther's  Erhalt  uns  HErr,  which,  however,  are  not  very 
happy  in  their  connection.  Johann  Agricola  of  Eisleben  (died  1566) 
wrote  Froehlich  wollen  wir  Alleluja  singen  (Ps.  117)  and  Ach  HErre 
Gott,  wie  haben  sich  wider  dich  so  hart  gesetzet  (Ps.  2).  Paul  Eber 
(died  1569)  struck  a  more  popular  strain  in  his  poems  HErr  JEsu 
Christ,  wahr'r  Mensch  und  Gott,  HErr  Gott,  dich  loben  alle  wir, 
Helft  mir  Gott's  Guete  preisen,  Wenn  wir  in  hoechsten  Noeten  sein, 
and  the  tender  In  Christi  Wunden  schlaf  ich  ein.  Johann  Walther 
(died  1566),  the  musician,  also  composed  spiritual  songs,  of  which 
Der  Braeut'gam  wird  bald  rufen  is  still  in  use.  Elisabeth  Kreutziger 
also  deserves  honorable  mention  for  her  poem  HErr  Christ,  der  einig 
Gottes  Sohn,  Vaters  in  Ewigkeit. 

When  the  Reformation  was  introduced  into  Prussia,  in  1524,  one 
of  Luther's  close  friends  was  instrumental  in  furthering  its  cause, 
also  by  means  of  his  poems.  This  was  Paul  Speratus  (died  1554), 
who,  in  conjunction  with  Luther,  had  issued  the  first  Lutheran 
hymnal.  His  best-known  hymn  is  Es  ist  das  Heil  uns  kommen  her, 
a  splendid  presentation  of  the  doctrine  of  justification.  He  also 
wrote  Ich  ruf  zu  dir,  HErr  JEsu  Christ,  ich  bitt'  erhoer  mein  Kla- 
gen,  Hilf  Gott,  wie  ist  der  Menschen  Not,  and  probably  O  HErre 
Gott,  dein  goettlich  Wort  ist  lang  verdunkelt  blieben.  His  assistant 
in  the  work  in  Prussia  was  Johann  Gramann  or  Graumann  — 
Poliander —  (died  1541),  whose  anthem  of  praise  Nun  lob,  mein 
Seel,  den  HErren  is  a  great  favorite  in  the  Lutheran  Church  to  this 
day.  Albrecht  the  Yoimger  of  Brandenburg-Culmbach  (died  1557) 
wrote  the  appealing  hymn  Was  mein  Gott  will,  das  g'scheh  allzeit. 
Erasmus  Alberus  (died  1553)  wrote  in  the  spirit  and  almost  with  tlie 
force  of  Luther.  His  best-known  hymns  are  Gott  hat  das  Evange- 
lium,  Ach  Gott,  tu  dich  erbarmen,  Wer  Gott's  Wort  hat  und  bleibt 
dabei  (Ps.  119),  and  especially  the  earnest  and  powerful  Gott  der 
Vater  wohn'  uns  bei. 

Another  circle  of  hymnists  in  the  period  of  the  Reformation  are 
those  of  Nuernberg,  among  whom  Lazarus  Spengler  (died  1534) 
takes  first  place.  He  wrote  Vergebens  ist  all  Mueh'  und  Kost  (Ps. 
127),  but,  above  all,  Durch  Adams  Fall  ist  ganz  verderbt,  a  hymn 
replete  with  the  great  truths  of  the  Gospel,  confessing  the  truth  in 
an  altogether  uncompromising  and  unequivocal  manner.  Hans  Sachs, 
the  master-singer,  also  tuned  his  lyre  and  sang  Die  Wittenbergisch 
Nachtigall,  die  man  jetzt  hoeret  ueberall.  His  hymns  are  not  so  well- 
known,  although  they  appear  in  many  hymnals.  Among  them  are 
Warum  betruebst  du  dich,  mein  Herz,  0  Mensch,  bewein  dein  Suende 
grosz,  and  many  songs  after  popular  folk-songs  of  the  day,  such  as 


332  THE  PERIOD  or  THE  EEFOEMATION. 

O  JEsu  zart,  goettlicher  Art,  Christum  vom  Himmel  ruf  ich  an, 
Christe,  wahrer  Solin  Gottes  fromm,  and  O  Gott  Vater,  du  hast  Ge- 
walt.  Sabaldus  Heyd  wrote  O  Mensch,  bewein  dein'  Suende  grosz 
and  Wer  in  dem  Schutz  des  Hoechsten  ist.  Johann  Hesse  (died 
1547)  is  remembered  on  account  of  the  tender  beauty  of  his  O  "Welt, 
ich  musz  dich  lassen.  A  little  later  than  these  men,  but  well  worthy 
to  stand  in  the  front  rank,  came  Nicolaus  Selnecker  (died  1592).  He 
edited  "Christliche  Psalmen,  Lieder  und  Kirchengesaenge,"  and  him- 
self wrote  some  hymns  which  are  favorites  to  this  day,  such  as  Lasz 
mich  dein  sein  und  bleiben,  Ach  bleib  bei  uns,  HErr  JEsu  Christ, 
O  HErre  Gott,  in  meiner  Not,  and  Wir  danken  dir,  HErr  JEsu 
Christ,  dasz  du  gen  Himmel  g'fahren  bist.  And  last,  but  not  least, 
we  have  in  this  group  Kaspar  Bienemann  (died  1591),  who  wrote 
the  hymn  HErr,  wie  du  wiUst,  so  schicks  mit  mir,  every  line  of  which 
breathes  childlike  faith  and  trust. 

At  the  same  time,  a  number  of  singers  arose  in  southern  (jrer- 
many,  especially  in  Strassburg.  Among  these  Conrad  Huber  (died 
1577),  who  wrote  AUein  zu  dir,  HErr  JEsu  Christ  and  O  Gott,  du 
hoechster  Gnadenhort  takes  a  high  rank.  Martin  Schalling  (died 
1608)  was  a  pupil  of  Melanchthon  and  therefore  strongly  inclined 
toward  peace  at  any  price.  But  his  poem  Herzlich  lieb  hab  ich  dich, 
0  HErr  breathes  the  most  devoted  love  for  the  Savior.  Ludwig  Oeler, 
who  lived  at  about  the  same  time,  wrote  the  doxology  Ehr  sei  dem 
Vater  und  dem  Sohn  und  auch  dem  Heilgen  Geiste. 

The  other  parts  of  Germany  are  also  represented  in  the  list  of 
Reformation  hymnists.  Nicolaiis  Decius  (died  1541)  has  given  us 
the  German  Gloria  in  excelsis,  Allein  Gott  in  der  Hoeh  sei  Ehr,  and 
the  no  less  well-known  German  Agnus  Dei  O  Lamm  Gottes,  unschul- 
dig.  loved  wherever  they  are  used.  Johann  Schneesing  or  Chiomusus 
(died  1567)  is  the  composer  of  Allein  zu  dir,  HErr  JEsu  Christ, 
mein  Hoffnung  steht  auf  Erden.  Adam  Reussner  (died  1563)  wrote 
In  dich  hab  ich  gehoffet,  HErr.  Bartholomaeus  Ringwaldt  (died 
1598)  had  the  gift  of  an  easy,  popular  style  in  his  poems,  among 
wliich  Es  ist  gewiszlich  an  der  Zeit  takes  the  first  place.  His  con- 
temporary Ludwig  Helmbold  (died  1598),  called  the  "German 
Asaph,"  composed  the  beautiful  Von  Gott  will  ich  nicht  lassen. 
Especially  well-known  are  the  names  of  Johann  Mathesius  (died 
1565)  and  his  cantor  Johann  Hermann  (died  1561).  The  formei 
wrote  Wer  bei  Gott  Schutz  und  Hilfe  sucht  and  the  morning  hymn 
Aus  meines  Herzens  Grimde.  And  the  latter  composed  hymns  for 
all  the  Gospels,  the  book  being  published  at  Wittenberg  in  1560. 
Some  of  the  favorite  hymns  of  his  composing  are  Lobt  Gott,  ihr 
Christen  allzugleich,  Die  helle  Sonn  leucht'  jetzt  herfuer,  and  Hin- 


THE  PERIOD  OF  THE  BEF0R3£ATI0N.  333 

unter  ist  der  Sonnenscbein.  The  list  could  easily  be  extended,  but 
we  must  mention  at  least  Martia  Behemb  (died  1622)  with  his  bynm 
O  JEsu  Christ,  meins  Lebens  Licht,  Philip  Nicolai  (died  1608)  with 
Wie  schoen  leucht  uns  der  Morgenstem  and  Wachet  auf,  ruft  uns  die 
Stimme,  and  Valerius  Herberger  (died  1627),  who  wrote  Valet  will 
ich  dir  geben. 

All  these  men  were  poets  by  the  grace  of  God,  who  sang  from  the 
fulness  and  richness  of  the  true  understanding  of  God's  mercies  in 
Christ  Jesus,  and  with  such  perfect  objectivity  that  they  sang  the 
thoughts  of  the  entire  Church.  For  this  reason  their  hymns,  though 
sometimes  lacking  in  grace  and  polish,  have  a  lasting  value.  They 
are  the  heritage  of  the  Church  for  all  times.^^s) 

But  while  these  men  used  their  gifts  in  songs  for  the  Church, 
they  did  not  neglect  the  music,  the  choral  part  of  the  singing.  Luther 
himself  had  a  good  knowledge  of  music,  and  he  encouraged  good 
church  music  in  every  way.  He  restored  the  Cantus  firmus  to  its 
position  in  the  choral  and  had  the  hymn  sung  in  one  voice.  He  by 
no  means  discarded  the  other  voices,  but  used  them  to  round  out  the 
melody  in  one  harmonious  -vyhole.  This  form  of  composition,  as  used 
in  the  days  of  Luther,  was  then  known  as  the  motet,  and  served  the 
highest  ideals  of  part-choral  singing.  Johann  Walther  was  Luther's 
right  hand  in  preparing  the  music  for  the  liturgy  and  in  arranging 
the  melodies  for  the  German  versions.  Ludwig  Senfl  also  'desers-es 
to  be  mentioned  for  his  work  along  these  lines. 

It  is  usually  "conceded  that  Luther  wrote  the  melody  for  Ein 
feste  Burg  himself.  Li  general,  however,  he  and  the  other  hymnists 
of  the  Reformation  made  use  of  extant  melodies,  either  by  translating 
Latin  hynms,  with  the  original  meter  and  inflection  and  retaining 
the  melodies,  or  by  using  old  church  melodies  from  pre-Reformation 
times,  or  by  composing  hymns  after  the  melodies  of  secular  songs. 
Thus  the  ancient  melody  of  the  hymns  Nun  komm,  der  Heiden  Hei- 
land,  Komm,  Heiliger  Geist,  Komm,  Gott  Schoepfer,  Heiliger  Geist, 
Was  fuerchtst  du  Feind  Herodes  sehr,  Christum  wir  sollen  loben 
schon,  Verleih  uns  Frieden  gnaediglich,  were  taken  over  by  Luther, 
also  for  the  hymns  Nun  laszt  uns  den  Leib  begraben  and  Christus 
der  du  hist  Tag  und  Licht,  by  Michael  Weisze.  Gott  der  Vater  wohn' 
uns  bei.  Nun  bitten  wir  den  Heiligen  Geist,  Mitten  wir  im  Leben 
sind,  Gott  sei  gelobet  und  gebenedeiet,  have  melodies  of  old  German 
popular  spiritual  songs.  Secular  melodies  were  taken  over  in  the 
case  of  the  following  hymns :  Es  ist  das  Heil  uns  kommen  her,  Christ 
unser  HErr  zum  Jordan  kam,  Ich  dank  dir,  lieber  HErre  (Entlaubt 
ist  uns  der  Walde),  Kommt  her  zu  mir,  spricht  Gottes  Sohn  (Was 


388)  Alt,  446—449;    Saengerbote,   St,  Louis,  1916.  1917. 


334  HYMNS  SINCE  THE  EEFOBMATION. 

woell  wir  aber  heben  an).  Paraphrasing  with  retention  of  the  secu- 
lar melody  occurred  in  hymns  like  these :  O  Welt,  ich  musz  dich  las- 
sen  (Innsbruck,  ich  musz  dich  lassen),  Vom  Himmel  hoch,  da  komm 
ich  her  (Aus  fremden  Landen  komm  ich  her),  O  Christe,  wo  war  dein 
Gestalt  (Rosina,  wo  war  dein  Grestalt),  Wie  schoen  leuchtet  der  Mor- 
genstern  (Wie  schoen  leuchten  die  Aeugelein),  Herzlich  tut  mir  ver- 
langen  (Mein  G'muet  ist  mir  verwirret).  The  number  of  original 
compositions,  however,  was  by  no  means  small.  This  is  true  not  only 
of  Ein  feste  Burg,  but  also,  according  to  the  testimony  of  Walther, 
of  Jesaia  dem  Propheten  and  Wir  glauben  all  an  einen  Gott.  Nico- 
laus  Hermann  composed  the  melody  for  Lobt  Gott,  ihr  Christen,  all- 
zugleich,  Selnecker  that  of  Wach  auf,  mein  Herz,  und  singe,  Philip 
Nicolai  that  of  Wachet  auf,  ruft  uns  die  Stimme.^^^) 

Thus  the  Lutheran  choral  was  introduced,  and  thus  it  spread 
throughout  Germany,  into  other  countries,  and  beyond  the  sea,  carry- 
ing in  its  wake  blessings  innumerable  by  making  the  people  every- 
where acquainted  with  the  glories  of  the  pure  Bible  doctrine  which 
the  Lutheran  Church  teaches  and  professes. 


CHAPTER  5. 
Hymns  Since  the  Reformation. 

The  fires  of  Christian  poetry  were  by  no  means  extinguished  at 
the  beginning  of  the  17th  century,  nor  was  the  ardor  of  the  individual 
poets  quenched  and'  the  objectivity  of  the  presentation  lessened  im- 
mediately, although  the  representative  "We"  was  gradually  replaced 
by  the  more  exclusive  "I."  "Upon  the  confession's  song  of  the  Re- 
formation era  followed  the  martyr  songs  of  the  cross  and  com- 
fort." 390)  But  whereas  51  writers  endowed  the  German  hymnody 
from  1517 — 1560,  an  increasing  host  of  poets  more  than  satisfied  the 
needs  of  the  Church,  and  some  of  their  songs  have  stood  the  test  of 
time  and  become  the  precious  possession  of  the  children  of  the  Re- 
formation. 

Johann  Heermann  (died  1647)  stands  on  the  boundary  of  the 
new  era.  His  best-known  hymns  are  O  Gott,  du  frommer  Gott,  So 
wahr  ich  lebe,  spricht  der  HErr,  Wo  soil  ich  fliehen  hin,  O  Jesu 
Christe,  wahres  Licht,  and  Herzliebster  Jesu,  was  hast  du  verbrochen, 
all  of  them  excellent  both  as  to  form  and  contents.  Andreas  Gryphius 
(died  1664)  was  a  greater  poet  than  Heermann,  but  since  he  did  not 
retain  the  appealing  simplicity  of  his  predecessors,  his  poems  are  not 
so  popular.    Paul  Flemming  (died  1640)  left  as  a  sacred  heritage  the 


389)  Cp.  Alt,  Der  kirchUche  Oottesdienst,  518.    402 — 406. 

390)  Horn,  87. 


HYMNS  SINCE  THE  EEFOBMATION.  335 

hymn  composed  before  his  journey  to  Persia  In  alien  meinen  Taten. 
Johann  Eist  (died  1667)  was  a  most  *prolific  writer,  more  than  650 
hymns  being  credited  to  him,  some  of  which  are  veritable  gems,  as 
O  Traurigkeit,  o  Herzeleid,  Werde  munter,  mein  Gemuete,  Du  Le- 
bensfuerst,  HErr  JEsus  Christ,  and  JEsu,  der  du  meine  Seele.  As 
for  Joshua  Stegmann  (died  1632),  he  composed  the  little  hymn  noted 
for  the  classical  brevity  of  its  diction,  Ach,  bleib  mit  deiner  Gnade, 
David  Denicke  (died  1680)  left  about  twenty  hymns,  among  which 
Wenn  ich  die  heiligen  zehn  Gebot  and  HErr  Gott,  der  du  erforschest 
mich  are  found  in  many  hymnals.  His  friend  and  coeditor  of  the 
Hannoverian  Hymnbook,  Justus  Gesenius  (died  1671)  composed, 
among  other,  Wenn  meine  Suend'  mich  kraenken,  and  the  baptismal 
hymn  Gott  Vater,  Sohn  und  Heilger  Geist.  To  Tobias  Clausnitzer 
(died  1684)  we  owe  the  old  favorite  Liebster  Jesu,  wir  sind  hier,  and 
to  Martin  Kinkart  the  burst  of  triumphant  praise  Nun  danket  alle 
Gott.  Simon  Dach  was  an  exponent  of  correct  and  easy  versification, 
but  lacked  in  depth.  A  fine  burial  song  of  his  is  O  wie  selig  seid  ihr 
doch,  ihr  Frommen.  His  friend  Heinrich  Alberti  ranked  high  both 
as  musical  composer  and  as  poet.  He  wrote  the  morning  hjmin  Gott 
des  Himmels  und  der  Erden.  Valentin  Milo  (died  1662)  wrote  the 
Lenten  hymn  Mit  Ernst,  ihr  Menschenkinder. 

But  the  culmination  of  17th  century  church  poetry  was  reached 
in  Paul  Gerhard  (died  1676),  the  Asaph  of  the  Lutheran  Church. 
"Gerhard's  songs,"  says  Wackemagel,  "mirror  the  transitional  char- 
acter of  his  time,  when  the  personal  feeling,  the  subjective  expression 
began  to  be  emphasized  in  addition  to  the  congregation  feeling,  so 
that  one  must  look  upon  him  as  the  last  and  at  the  same  time  most 
I)erfect  of  the  strict  church  poets  who  were  firmly  based  upon  the 
confession  and  creed.  At  the  same  time  he  opened  the  list  of  those 
poets,  in  whose  songs  the  praise  and  adoration  of  the  revealed  God 
became  secondary  to  the  expression  of  the  sensations  which  fill  the 
soul  when  it  considers  its  relation  to  God.  He  stood  at  the  culmina- 
tion of  the  period,  and  both  tendencies  are  imited  in  him  in  a  most 
expressive  fashion."  He  wrote  about  120  hymns,  many  of  which  are 
regarded  as  classics  with  all  reason,  as  the  following:  Ich  singe  dir 
mit  Herz  und  Mund,  O  Haupt  voU  Blut  und  Wunden,  Ein  Laemm- 
lein  geht  und  traegt  die  Schuld,  Auf,  auf,  mein  Herz,  mit  Freuden, 
Wie  soil  ich  dich  empfangen,  Nun  ruhen  alle  Waelder,  Wach  auf, 
mein  Herz,  und  singe,  Befiehl  du  deine  Wege.  Other  hjrmnists  fol- 
lowed Gerhard's  lead  in  composing  songs  of  devotion.  Louise  Hen- 
riette  of  Brandenburg  (died  1667)  wrote  Jesus,  meine  Zuversicht, 
Ich  will  von  meiner  Missetat,  and  two  other  hymns.  Georg  Neumark 
(died  1681)  furnished  both  text  and  melody  of  the  song  of  comfort 


33G  HYMNS  SINCE  THE  BEFOEMATION. 

and  consolation  Wer  nur  den  lieben  Gott  laeszt  walten.  In  Johann 
Frank  (died  1677)  the  subjective  element  is  expressed  more  strongly, 
as  his  hymns  Schmuecke  dich,  o  liebe  Seele  and  Jesu,  meine  Freude 
show.  Ernst  Christoph  Homburg  (died  1681)  composed  150  hymns, 
of  which  Jesu,  meines  Lebens  Leben  and  0  wunderbarer  Siegesheld 
are  the  best  known.  His  contemporary  Georg  Albinus  (died  1679) 
composed  the  burial  song  Alle  Menschen  muessen  sterben.  Johann 
Scheffler  or  Angelus  Silesius  (died  1677),  who  became  an  apostate  to 
the  Roman  Catholic  Church,  left  at  least  two  hymns  which  are  used 
to  some  extent  to-day,  Mir  nach,  spricht  Christus,  unser  Held,  and 
Jesu,  komm  doch  selbst  zu  nur. 

It  was  not  long,  however,  before  the  rise  of  Pietism,  followed  by 
Rationalism,  exerted  a  disastrous  influence  also  upon  Lutheran 
hymnody.  During  the  18th  and  19th  centuries  there  are  only  com- 
paratively few  poets  whose  hymns  bear  the  stamp  of  classical  objec- 
tivity. The  hymns  of  Scriver  (died  1693)  are  almost  sentimentally 
soft,  although  not  without  charm,  as  Jesu,  meiner  Seelen  Leben. 
Johann  Jacob  Schuetz  (died  1690)  sang  in  the  heroic  strain  of  Lu- 
ther :  Sei  Lob  und  "Ehr  dem  hoechsten  Gut.  Almost  the  same  may 
be  said  of  Samuel  Eodigast's  (died  1708)  Was  Gott  tut,  das  ist  wohl- 
getan.  Johann  Daniel  Herrnschmidt  (died  1723)  composed  the  stir- 
ring and  appealing  hymns  Lobe  den  HErren,  o  meine  Seele  and  Gott 
will's  machen.  Christian  Friedrich  Richter  (died  1711)  composed  a 
total  of  33  songs,  of  which  Es  glaenzet  der  Christen  inwendiges  Leben 
is  still  in  use.  Then  came  a  long  line  of  hymnists:  Johann  Heinrich 
Schroeder  (died  1728),  Eins  ist  not,  ach  HErr,  dies  eine;  Wolfgang 
Christoph  Dessler  (died  1722),  Wie  wohl  ist  mir,  o  Freund  der  See- 
len; Ludwig  Andreas  Gotter  (died  1735),  HErr  JEsu,  Gnadensonne; 
Bartholomaeus  Crasselius  (died  1724),  Dir,  dir,  Jehovah  will  ich 
singen  and  Hallelujah,  Lob,  Preis  tmd  Ehr;  Johann  Muthmann  (died 
1747),  Zeuch  uns  nach  dir,  so  laufen  wir;  Emilie  Juliane  of  Schwarz- 
burg-Rudolstadt  (died  1706),  Wer  weisz,  wie  nahe  mir  mein  Ende. 

In  the  second  half  of  the  18th  century  the  heroic,  objective  strain 
fell  away  entirely,  and  there  are  few  poets  which  may  lay  claim  to 
recognition  as  church  poets.  Johann  Ludwig  Allendorf  (died  1773) 
wrote  the  song  Unter  Lilien  jener  Freuden.  Leopold  Lehr  (died 
1744)  wrote  Mein  Heiland  nimmt  die  Suender  an.  Johann  Andreas 
Rothe  (died  1758)  caught  the  spirit  of  Gerhard  in  his  Ich  habe  nun 
den  Grund  gefunden.  Of  the  2,000  songs  credited  to  Zinzendorf,  his 
Jesu,  geh  voran  has  remained  a  great  favorite.  Erdman  Neumeister 
(died  1756)  wrote  Jesus  nimmt  die  Suender  an.  To  Benjamin 
Schmolck  (died  1737)  almost  1200  hymns  are  ascribed,  among  which 
Der  beste  Freund  ist  in  dem  Himmel  is  a  favorite.    Christian  Fuerch- 


HYMNS  SINCE  THE  EEFOBMATION.  337 

tegott  Gellert  (died  1769)  wrote  a  number  of  hymns  which  are  the 
very  antithesis  of  Lutheran  force  and  brevity.  Novalis  (died  1801) 
is  the  composer  of  the  charming  Wenn  ich  ihn  nur  habe.  Karl  Jo- 
hann  Philip  Spitta  has  many  lyric  gems,  but  none  more  appealing 
than  the  Es  zieht  ein  stiller  Engel. 

In  addition  to  leaving  these  splendid  hymns  and  spiritual  songs 
as  a  priceless  heritage  to  the  Christian  Church,  the  poets  themselves 
or  musicians  of  eminent  ability  furnished  choral  tunes  which,  in  most 
cases,  express  the  very  essence  of  the  text  and  its  sentiment,  a  fact 
which  is  being  recognized  with  increasing  distinctness  by  musicians 
of  the  first  rank  both  in  America  and  abroad.  To  sing  a  Lutheran 
hymn,  which  has  its  own  time,  to  the  music  of  a  modern  jingle,  is 
little  short  of  sacrilege.  It  is  a  transgression  on  a  par  with  having 
every  long  meter  stanza  sung  to  the  tune  of  Old  Hundredth.  All  honor 
to  the  old  cantors  that  furnished  us  with  such  classical  tunes  for  our 
congregational  hymns!  A  few,  at  least,  deserve  honorable,  if  brief 
mention.  Michael  Praetorius  (died  1621)  wrote  the  melody  for  Ich 
dank  dir  schon.  Johann  Hermann  Schein  (died  1630)  furnished  the 
appropriate  tune  for  Mir  nach,  spricht  Christus.  The  lovely  melody 
of 'Gott  des  Himmels  und  der  Erden  is  due  to  Heinrich  Alberti  (died 
1668).  A  musician  that  ranked  exceptionally  high  as  a  composer  of 
choral  tunes,  was  Johann  Crueger  (died  1662),  who  wrote  the  music 
for  HErr,  ich  habe  miszgehandelt,  Herzliebster  JEsu,  was  hast  du 
verbrochen,  Nun  danket  alle  Gott,  O  wie  selig  seid  ihr  doch,  ihr 
Erommen,  and  JEsus,  meine  Zuversicht.  Joachim  Neander  (died 
1680)  wrote  the  stirring  tune  of  Lobe  den  HErren,  den  maechtigen 
Koenig  der  Ehren.  Johann  Schoppe,  an  eminent  musician  who  in- 
variably entered  into  the  spirit  of  the  hymn,  wrote  the  appropriate 
times  for  O  Ewigkeit,  du  Donnerwort,  SoUt  ich  meinem  Gott'nicht  sin- 
gen,  Werde  munter,  mein  Gemuete,  and  others.  Gastorius  Severus 
in  1675  composed  the  consoling  melody  of  Was  Gott  tut,  das  ist 
wohlgetan.  Johann  Rudolf  Ahle  (died  1673)  furnished  the  tune  for 
Liebster  Jesu,  wir  sind  hier,  which  has  been  a  favorite  since.  And 
last,  but  not  least,  Georg  Neumark  (died  1681)  composed  the  music 
for  his  hymn  Wer  nur  den  lieben  Gott  laeszt  walten. 

In  later  times,  especially  in  the  period  of  Rationalism,  a  tendency 
to  substitute  shallow  and  sentimental  melodies  for  the  old,  full 
chorals  became  apparent,  which  has  not  quite  died  out  yet.  A  hjrmnal 
of  a  Free  Protestant  congregation  of  the  middle  of  the  last  century 
contains  not  only  the  melodies  O  sanctissima  and  Integer  vitae,  but 
also  O  Isis  and  Osiris  (from  the  Magic  Flute),  Dies  ist  der  Tag  des 
HErrn,  and  Der  du  von  dem  Himmel  bist.^^i) 


391)  Alt,  Der  kirchliohe  Gottesdienst,  413. 

Kretzmann,  Christian  Art  22 


338  HYMNS  SINCE  THE  BBFOBMATION. 

We  ought,  in  passing,  at  least  take  notice  of  Protestant  religious 
music.  The  German  school  entered  the  17th  century  with  the  choral, 
the  motet,  and  various  forms  of  organ  music.  Then  came  the  influ- 
ence of  the  great  Italian  masters,  Palestrina,  Scarlatti,  and  also  of 
Orlando  Lasso,  which  resulted  in  the  inspiring  Passions  and  many 
beautiful  cantatas.  The  cantata  was  at  first  a  musical  recitation  by 
a  single  person,  accompanied  by  a  few  plain  chords.  It  was  not  long, 
however,  before  duets,  quartets,  and  choruses  were  added,  introducing, 
in  a  measure  at  least,  the  dramatic  element.  The  Passion  music 
grew  out  of  the  recitative  declamation  of  the  Passion  story  during 
Lent  and,  above  all,  during  Holy  Week.  The  oratorio  was  essentially 
an  advance  upon  the  cantata.  There  is  one  man  who,  both  as  organ 
player  and  as  composer,  stands  at  the  summit  of  human  achievement, 
as  Dickinson  says  (p.  292).  This  is  Johann  Sebastian  Bach  (1685 — 
1754).  He  wrote  every  form  of  organ  music,  especially  organ  pre- 
ludes and  cantatas.  His  greatest  glory  rests  upon  his  five  Passions, 
of  which  those  of  St.  Matthew  and  St.  John  have  been  preserved.  One 
hardly  knows  what  to  admire  more,  the  lofty  and  sustained  grandeur 
or  the  penetrating,  appealing  beauty.  The  Passion  according  to 
St.  Matthew  has  given  to  Bach  his  unquestioned  rank.  The  corre- 
sponding place  with  reference  to  the  oratorio  is  held  by  Greorge  Prede- 
riek  Haendel  (1685 — 1759).  His  Messiah  overwhelmed  the  audience 
at  the  first  rendering,  and  time  has  in  no  way  dimmed  the  luster  of 
the  wonderful  composition. 

But  while  the  Lutheran  choral  was  thus  being  developed  in  (Ger- 
many, and  also  in  Norway,  Sweden,  and  Denmark,  where  its  spirit 
had  been  caught  from  the  first,  a  style  of  hymn-  or  anthem-writing 
was  brought  out  also  in  England,  and  later  in  America,  which  was 
preeminently  subjective  and  often  fell  short  of  the  classic  ideal,  but 
sometimes  resulted  in  compositions  of  great  beauty.  It  would  mani- 
festly be  impossible  to  give  a  complete  list  of  the  English  and  Ameri- 
can hymn-writers,  but  the  following  names  represent  the  foremost 
hymnists.  There  was  never  such  a  spontaneous  outburst  of  melody 
as  on  the  Continent,  but  Miles  Coverdale  (1488 — 1569)  and  George 
Sandys  (1577 — 1643)  represent  the  religious  poets  in  the  15tla  and 
early  16th  centuries.  Then  came  a  gradual  awakening  with  John 
Milton  (1608—1675),  Jeremy  Taylor  (1613—1667),  John  Bunyan 
(1628—1688),  Thomas  Ken  (1637—1711),  Nahum  Tate  (1652—1715), 
and  culminating,  at  the  end  of  the  17th  century,  in  Isaac  Watts 
(1674 — 1748).  Then  came  the  golden  age  of  English  hymn-writing, 
with  PhiHp  Doddridge  (1702—1751),  Charles  Wesley  (1708—1788), 
John  Newton  (1725—1807),  E.  Perronet  (1721—1792),  Th.  Haweis 
(1732—1820),    and  John  Fawcett  (1717—1817).     The  next  fifty  or 


HYMNS  SINCE  THE  EEFOEMATION.  339 

three-score  years  were  hardly  less  prolific,  with  John  Adams  (1751 — 
1835),  Keginald  Ileber  (1783—1826),  James  Edmeston  (1791—1867), 
William  Ifenry  Havergal  (1793—1870),  Henry  Francis  Lyte  (1793— 
1847),  and  William  Hiley  Bragge-Bathurst  (1796—1877).  And  dur- 
ing the  last  century  we  have  John  Henry  Newman  (1801 — 1890), 
Horatius  Bonar  (1808—1880),  William  Mercer  (1811—1873),  John 
Mason  Neale  (1818—1866),  Catherine  Winkworth  (1829—1878), 
Sabine  Baring-Gould  (1834 —  ),  and  Miss  Frances  Eidley  Havergal 
(1836—1879). 

America  also  has  a  few  men  who  are  prominent  in  this  field. 
During  Colonial  times  the  name  of  Cotton  Mather  (1663 — 1728) 
stood  out  prominently.  And  in  the  last  century  and  a  half  we  have 
William.  August  Muhlenberg  (1796 — 1877),  George  Washington 
Doane  (1799—1859),  George  Duffield  jr.  (1818—  ),  and  Phoebe 
Carey  (1824—1871). 

The  following  list  is  taken  from  Duffield,  English  Hymns,  and 
includes  all  the  best-known  hymns  which  are  now  in  general  use  in 
America : 

A  broken  heart,  my  God,  my  King  (Watts) ; 
A  mighty  fortress  is  our  God  (Hedge,  trsl.) ; 
Abide  with  me,  fast  falls  the  eventide  (Lyte) ; 
Alas !  and  did  my  Savior  bleed  (Watts) ; 
AH  hail  the  power  of  Jesus'  name  (Perronet) ; 
All  my  heart  this  night  rejoices   (Winkworth,  trsl.  from  Gerhard, 

Froehlich  soil) ; 
Almighty  God,  Thy  Word  is  cast  (Cawood) ; 
Am  I  a  soldier  of  the  cross  (Watts) ; 
Arise,  my  soul,  arise  (C.  Wesley) ; 
As  with  gladness  men  of  old  (C.  W.  Dix) ; 
Before  Jehovah's  awful  throne  (Watts) ; 
Blest  be  the  tie  th^t  binds  (Fawcett) ; 
Chief  of  sinners  though  I  be  (McComb) ; 

Christ  the  Lord  is  risen  again  (Winkworth,  trsl.  Christ  ist  eratanden) ; 
Christ  the  Lord  is  risen  to-8ay  (C.  Wesley) ; 
Come,  thou  almighty  King  (C.  Wesley  ?) ; 
Come,  ye  disconsolate  (Moore) ; 
.Crown  Him  with  many  crowns  (Bridges); 

Day  of  wrath,  O  dreadful  day  (Stanley,  trsl.  from  Latin  Dies  irae); 
Fairest  Lord  Jesus,  Ruler  of  all  nature    (Willis,    trsl.  Schoenster 

HErr  JEsu) ; 
From  Greenland's  icy  mountains  (Heber) ; 
Glorious  things  of  Thee  are  spoken  (Newton)  ; 
Go  to  dark  Gethsemane  (Montgomery); 


340  HYMIvS  SINCE  THE  REFOEMATION. 

God  moves  in  a  mysterious' way  (Cowper); 

Guide  me,  O  Thou  great  Jehovah  (W.  Williams) ; 

Hail,  Thou  once  despised  Jesus  (Bakewell) ; 

Hark !  the  herald  angels  sing  (C.  Wesley) ; 

Here  I  can  firmly  rest  (Winkworth,  trsl.  1st  Gott  fuer  mich,  so  trete) ; 

Holy  Ghost,  with  light  divine  (A.  Keed) ; 

Holy,  Holy,  Holy,  Lord  God  Almighty  (Heber) ; 

How    brightly    shines    the    morning-star    (Sloan,    trsl.    Wie    schoen 

leuchtet) ; 
How  precious  is  the  book  divine  (Fawcett) ; 
How  shall  the  young  secure  their  hearts  (Watts) ; 
How  sweet  the  name  of  Jesus  sounds  (Newton) ; 
I  am  trusting  Thee,  Lord  Jesus  (Havergal) ; 
I  know  that  my  Redeemer  lives  (C.  Wesley) ; 
I  lay  my  sins  on  Jesus  (Bonar) ; 
In  the  cross  of  Christ  I  glory  (Bowring) ; 
Li  the  hour  of  trial  (Montgomery)  ; 
It  came  upon  a  midnight  clear  (Sears) ; 
Jerusalem  the  golden  (Xeale,  trsl.  from  Urbs  Syon  aurea) ; 
Jesus,  and  shall  it  ever  be  (Grigg) ; 
Jesus,  I  my  cross  have  taken  (Lyte) ; 
Jesus,  lover  of  my  soul  (C.  Wesley) ; 
Joy  to  the  world,  the  Lord  is  come  (Watts) ; 
Just  as  I  am,  without  one  plea  (C.  Elliott) ; 
Lord  of  mercy  and  of  might  (Heber) ; 
My  country,  'tis  of  thee  (S.  F.  Smith) ; 
My  faith  looks  up  to  Thee  (Pahner) ; 
My  soul,  be  on  thy  guard  (Heath) ; 
Nearer,  my  God,  to  Thee  (Adams) ; 

Now  thank  we  all  our  God  (Winkworth,  trsl.  Nun  danket  alle  Gott) ; 
Oh,  come,  all  ye  faithful  (Oakeley,  Mercer,  and  others,  trsl.  Adeste 

fideles) ; 
Oh,  for  a  faith  that  will  not  shrink  (Bathurst) ; 
O  sacred  head,  now  wounded  (J.  W.  Alexander,  trsl.  O  Haupt  voll 

Blut  und  Wunden) ; 
One  sweetly  solemn  thought  (Phoebe  Carey) ; 
Onward,  Christian  soldiers  (Baring- Gould) ; 
Open  now  thy  gates  of  beauty   (Winkworth,  trsl.  Tut  mir  auf  die 

schoene  Pf  orte) ; 
Our  country's  voice  is  pleading  (Mrs.  Anderson) ; 
Praise  God,  from  whom  all  blessings  flow  (Ken) ; 
Rock  of  Ages,  cleft  for  me  (Toplady) ; 
Savior,  breathe  an  evening  blessing  (Edmeston) ; 


HYMNS  SINCE  THE  REFORMATION.  341 

Savior,  Thy  dying  love  (Phelps) ; 

So  rest,  our  Rest  (Massie,  trsl.  So  ruhest  du,  o  meine  Ruh) ; 

Stand  up,  stand  up  for  Jesus  (G.  W.  Duffield); 

Sun  of  my  soul,  Thou  Savior  dear  (Keble) ; 

Take  my  life  and  let  it  be  (Havergal)  ; 

The  morning  light  is  breaking  (S.  F.  Smith); 

There  is  a  fountain  filled  with  blood  (Cowper) ; 

Thine  forever,  God  of  love  (Maude) ; 

Thy  life  was  given  for  me  (Havergal) ; 

Wake,  awake,  for  night  is  flying  (Winkworth,  trsl.  Wachet  auf  ruft 

uns); 
While  shepherds  watched  their  flocks  (Tate) ; 
Zion,  thy  marvelous  beauty  be  telling  (Muhlenberg). 

There  are  indications  that  the  fountain  of  Christian  poetry  has  not 
dried  up,  also  not  in  the  Lutheran  Church  in  America,  and  the  hymns 
of  some  poets  living  to-day  will  probably  outlive  the  generation  and 
be  reckoned  with  the  heritage  of  the  ages. 


PART  III. 
Heortoiogy. 


CHAPTER  1. 

The  Festivals  of  the  Old  Testament  Church. 

The  church-year  of  the  Jews  was  not  the  result  of  slow  develop- 
ment, but  was  given  to  them  by  divine  commandment  at  the  time  of 
their  becoming  the  people  of  the  covenant.  When  the  people  of  Israel 
were  delivered  from  the  bondage  of  Egypt,  the  Lord  designated  the 
spring  month  Abib,  the  month  in  which  they  left  Egypt,  as  the  first 
month  of  their  year.  He  also  gave  them  full  and  exact  instructions 
as  to  the  entire  mode  of  celebration,  including  the  choice  of  the  sacri- 
ficial animals,  the  time  and  manner  of  sacrificing,  and  all  the  rites 
which  should  be  observed  in  connection  with  the  festivals.  In  the 
course  of  the  forty  years'  sojourn  in  the  wilderness,  all  the  laws,  regu- 
lations, and  customs  regarding  the  festivals  were  codified  in  the  Pen- 
tateuch. Their  briefest  summary  is  contained  in  Deut.  16,  16: 
"Three  times  in  a  year  shall  all  thy  males  appear  before  the  Lord, 
thy  God,  in  the  place  which  He  shall  choose:  in  the  Eeast  of  Un- 
leavened Bread,  and  in  the  Feast  of  Weeks,  and  in  the  Feast  of  Taber- 
nacles" After  the  return  from  the  exile  two  more  festivals  were 
added  by  the  leaders  of  the  Jewish  Church,  the  Feast  of  Purim  and 
the  Feast  of  the  Dedication  of  the  Temple.  In  addition,  there  were 
the  new  moons,  including  the  Feast  of  the  Seventh  New  Moon,  the 
Feast  of  Wood-Offering,  and  the  fast-days,  which  were  observed  with 
punctuality  and  punctiliousness. 

The  oldest  festival  in  the  Jewish  calendar  is  the  Passover,  with 
which  was  connected  the  Feast  of  Unleavened  Bread  (Ex.  12,  1 — 51 ; 
13,  1—10;  Lev.  23,  5—8;  Num.  28,  16—25;  Deut.  16,  3—8;  2  Chron. 
30,  13—21;  Ezek.  45,  21—24;  Ezra  6,  19—22).  It  was  instituted  at 
the  time  of  the  exodus  of  Israel  from  Egypt.  The  spring  month,  the 
time  of  the  awakening  of  the  earth  to  new  life,  corresponding  to  the 
latter  half  of  our  March  together  with  the  beginning  of  April,  was 
made  the  first  month  of  the  Jewish  year,  under  the  name  Abib  or 
Nisan,  Ex.  13,  4.  On  the  14th  of  this  month  eaeh  head  of  a  house- 
hold or  company,  large  enough  to  eat  a  lamb  at  one  meal,  was  to  take 
the  animal  and  slaughter  it.  At  the  first  celebration,  the  Israelites 
had  the  choice  between  a  lamb  and  a  kid,  but  in  later  years  the  rule 
was  to  take  a  lamb.  The  animal  was  to  be  a  lamb  of  the  first  year, 
that  is,  one  born  during  the  preceding  year.  It  was  essential  that  it 
was  without  blemish,  not  sick,  nor  disfigured,  nor  crippled.     The  kil- 


OLD  TESTAMENT  FESTIVALS.  343 

ling  of  the  lamb  should  be  done  ''between  the  evenings,"  Ex.  12,  6; 
Num.  9,  5.  The  Pharisees  maintained  that  this  expression  designated 
the  time  before  and  after  sunset,  the  Samaritans  and  the  Karaite 
Jews  insisted  that  it  meant  the  time  between  svmset  and  darknes8.392) 
The  use  of  the  expression  in  other  passages,  e.  g.  Ex.  16,  12 ;  29,  39 — 
41;  30,  8;  Num.  28,  4,  show  that  the  interpretation  of  the  Samaritans 
was  correct.  The  other  custom  was  one  which  practical  reasons  and 
expediency  suggested  and  later  made  imperative.  Cp.  the  German 
Zwielicht,  the  English  twilight,  and  especially  the  passage  Deut.  16,  6. 

At  the  first  Passover,  every  house-father  tended  to  the  killing  of 
the  lamb  himself.  Later,  when  the  command  of  God  required  every 
member  of  the  Jewish  Church  to  be  present  in  Jerusalem,  the  rite 
was  performed  in  the  temple.  In  Egypt,  the  blood  was  used  to  paint 
the  side  posts  and  the  lintel  of  the  doors,  in  order  that  the  angel  of 
the  Lord  might  pass  by  or  over  these  houses.  The  lamb  was  then 
taken  and  roasted  with  fire,  "his  head  with  the  legs,  and  the  purte- 
nance  thereof,"  Ex.  12,  9.  Nothing  should  remain  of  the  roasted 
lamb  till  the  next  morning;  any  remaining  parts  had  to  be  burned 
with  fire. 

In  addition  to  the  lamb,  the  Passover  meal  consisted  of  un- 
leavened bread  and  bitter  herbs.  Neither  leavened  bread  nor  any 
form  of  leaven  was  to  be  seen  in  any  quarters  of  the  Jews  during 
Passover  and  the  Week  of  Unleavened  Bread,  Ex.  13,  7.  The  Jews 
use  a  form  of  unleavened  bread  called  Mazzoth,  in  the  shape  of  flat 
cakes  or  crackers  resembling  soda  crackers.  The  bitter  herbs  of  a 
green  color,  according  to  the  rabbis,  which  were  used  as  a  condiment, 
W3re  especially  prescribed.  Many  scholars  believe  that  the  German 
name  for  Maundy  Thursday,  Gruendonnerstag,  is  derived  from  these 
green  herbs. 

The  Passover  was  kept  by  the  children  of  Israel  in  the  wilder- 
ness, in  the  second  year  after  they  were  come  out  of  the'  land  of 
Egypt,  Num.  9,  1 — 5.  Its  celebration  is  again  recorded  after  the  con- 
quest of  Canaan,  when  the  children  of  Israel  were  encamped  in  Gil- 
gal,  Josh.  5,  10.  In  the  time  of  David  and  Solomon  the  keeping  of 
this  festival  must  have  been  a  regular  occurrence,  2  Chron.  8,  13. 
Later  records,  however,  show  that  there  were  long  intervals  during 
which  the  people  left  the  custonM  of  their  fathers,  2  Kings  23,  21; 
Ezra  6,  19;  Ezek.  9,  4 — 6.  After  the  restoration  of  the  temple  during 
the  time  of  the  Maccabees  and  during  the  Roman  period  the  celebra- 
tion again  occurred  with  great  regularity.  It  was  then  that  the 
many  ordinances  of  the  elders  were  added,  regulating  the  observance 
of  the  festival  even  to  the  minutest  detail. 


392)  Cp.  Gesenhis,  sub  eber. 


344  OLD  TESTAMENT  FESTIVALS. 

The  great  sacrifice  of  the  Feast  of  Unleavened  Bread,  which  was 
celebrated  from  the  15th  to  the  21st  of  Nisan,  consisting  in  bringing 
a  sheaf  of  the  firstfruits  to  the  Lord.  It  was  a  sheaf  of  barley,  which 
was  waved  before  the  Lord,  that  is,  it  was  held  out  between  the  priest 
and  the  person  designated  for  bringing  the  sacrifice,  and  the  hands 
were  then  moved  back  and  forth,  and  up  and  down.  Lev.  23,  4 — 14. 
During  this  whole  week,  special  sacrifices  were  made  to  the  Lord,  a 
burnt  offering:  two  young  bullocks,  one  ram,  and  seven  lambs  of  the 
first  year;  a  meat  offering:  flour  mingled  with  oil;  a  sin  offering:  one 
goat ;  all  this  beside  the  usual  burnt  offering.  Lev.  23,  5 — 8 ;  Num.  28, 
IG — 25.  The  first  and  the  seventh  day  of  the  week  were  set  aside  for 
convocations.  It  seems  that  every  day  of  the  week  was  later  regarded 
as  a  Sabbath,  John  20,  1,  and  that  the  entire  14th  day  of  Nisan  was 
included  in  the  Days  of  Unleavened  Bread,  Matt.  26,  17 ;  Mark  14,  12. 

If  any  member  of  the  Jewish  Church  happened  to  be  levitically 
unclean  at  the  time  of  the  Passover,  or  if  he  was  on  a  journey,  such  a 
person  had  the  opportunity  to  celebrate  a  month  later,  on  the  14th 
of  Zif  (May),  being  obliged,  at  that  time,  to  observe  all  the  rules  and 
customs  of  the  regular  festival.  Num.  9,  6 — 14.  In  one  case,  at  least, 
it  happened  that  the  priests  themselves  were  not  sanctified  and  that 
the  entire  nation  celebrated  the  Passover  on  the  14th  day  of  the  sec- 
ond month,  2  Chron.  30,  13—17. 

To  speak  in  detail  of  the  symbolism  of  the  Passover  would  lead 
us  too  far  afield.  For  the  children  of  Israel  it  was  the  day  of  eman- 
cipation or  independence,  it  was  the  birthday  of  their  nation.  Almost 
every  feature  of  the  festival,  however,  served  as  a  type  of  things  to 
come  im.der  the  new  dispensation.  The  imleavened  bread  with  its 
insipid  and  disagreeable  taste  symbolized  to  the  Israelites  the  hard- 
ships and  afflictions  of  Egypt,  Deut.  16,  3.  In  the  New  Testament 
unleavened  bread  is  a  symbol  of  spiritual  purity,  just  as  leaven  is  a 
type  of  corruption  and  of  quick  results,  1  Cor.  5,  6 — 8;  Matt.  16,  6; 
Luke  12,  1;  Mark  8,  15;  Gal.  5,  9.  The  fact  that  the  bones  of  the 
paschal  lamb  should  not  be  broken  is  interpreted  by  John,  chap.  19, 
36.  And  the  lamb  was  a  type  of  Christ,  1  Cor.  5,  7;  1  Pet.  1,  19; 
John  1,  29. 

Fifty  days  after  the  festival  of  the  Passover,  counting  seven 
complete  Sabbaths,  and  taking  the  morrow  after  the  seventh,  Lev.  23, 
15.  16,  was  the  Day  of  Pentecost  or  the  Feast  of  Weeks,  Noun.  28,  26 ; 
Ex.  23,  14—17;  34,  22;  Lev.  23,  15—21;  Deut.  16,  9—16;  2  Chron.  8, 
13.  It  was,  incidentally,  the  feast  of  the  firstfruits  of  wheat-flour. 
Lev.  23,  17.  20;  Ex.  23,  10;  Deut.  26,  2.  10.  The  date  of  Pentecost 
was  the  6th  of  Si  van  (June).  The  people  came  together  to  celebrate 
before  the  Lord,  in  the  early  days  in  the  place  where  the  tabernacle 


OLD  TESTAMENT  FESTIVALS.  345 

stood,  later  in  Jerusalem,  all  males  being  obliged  to  appear,  Ex.  23,  17. 
Although  the  festival  lasted  only  one  day,  it  was  a  principal  feast 
and  was  kept  with  great  rejoicing,  Deut.  16,  9 — 12.  Special  sacrifices 
were  offered,  burnt  offerings:  two  young  bullocks,  one  ram,  seven 
lambs  of  the  first  year;  a  meat  offering,  of  flour  mingled  with  oil;  a 
kid  of  the  goats,  for  atonement,  beside  the  usual  burnt  offerings  and 
drink  offerings.  There  was  also  a  holy  convocation  before  the  Lord 
on  the  day  of  Pentecost,  Num.  28,  26 — 31.  The  special  offerings  of 
the  firstfruits  consisted  in  two  wave-loaves  of  fine  flour,  and  two  lambs 
of  the  first  year  for  a  sacrifice  of  ye&ce  offerings.  Lev.  23,  15 — 21. 

The  symbolism  of  the  Feast  of  Weeks  has  offered  great  difficul- 
ties to  scholars,  on  account  of  the  absence  of  definite  New  Testament 
passages  in  explanation  of  the  types.  We  may  say,  however,  without 
straining  the  matter  of  probability  too  strongly,  that,  as  the  fiftieth 
day  after  the  first  Passover  brought  the  giving  of  the  Law  on  Mount 
Sinai  and  the  formal  acceptance  and  acknowledgment  of  Israel  as  a 
nation,  so  the  day  of  Pentecost  in  the  New  Testament  witnessed  the 
birth  of  the  holy  nation,  the  Christian  Church.  And  as  the  Feast  of 
Weeks  served  for  the  purpose  of  sacrificing  the  firstfruits  of  the  year 
to  the  Lord,  so  the  New  Testament  Pentecost  was  made  memorable 
by  the  winning  of  the  firstfruits  for  the  Lord.^^^) 

The  third  great  festival  of  the  Jewish  calendar  was  the  Feast  of 
Tabernacles,  Lev.  23,  34—43;  Ex.  23,  16;  34,  22;  Deut.  16,  13—16; 
2  Chron.  8,  13;  Zech.  14,  16—21.  Incidentally,  it  was  the  feast  of  the 
ingathering  of  oil  and  wine,  Deut.  16,  13,  just  as  Pentecost  was  the 
festival  of  the  grain  harvest.  It  was  held  on  the  15th  day  of  the 
seventh  month,  Tishri  or  Ethanim  (October),  and  lasted  seven  days. 
The  first  day  was  a  Sabbath  with  an  holy  convocation,  and  also  the 
eighth  day.  Being  the  last  harvest  feast  of  thankfulness,  it  was  the 
most  joyous  of  all  festive  seasons  in  Israel.  All  the  people  erected 
booths  made  of  boughs  of  goodly  trees,  branches  of  palm  trees,  and 
the  boughs  of  thick  trees  and  willows  of  the  brook.  Lev.  23,  40.  The 
number  of  sacrifices  offered  in  the  course  of  this  week  was  exception- 
ally large,  to  correspond  with  the  joyful  nature  of  the  occasion,  burnt 
offerings:  thirteen  young  bullocks,  two  rams,  and  fourteen  lambs  of 
the  first  year;  meat  offering,  flour  mingled  with  oil;  sin  offering,  one 
kid  of  the  goats,  in  addition  to  the  usual  offerings.  The  number  of 
bullocks  was  reduced  by  one  every  day  until  the  seventh  day,  only 
seven  being  offered  on  that  day.  On  the  eighth  day  one  bullock,  one 
ram,  and  seven  lambs  were  sacrificed,  Num.  29,  12 — 34. 


393)  Cp.  Kliefoth,  Die  ursprucngliche  Gottesdienstordnumj,  I,  155; 
Goodwin-,  Moses  et  Aaron,  HI,  Cap.  V;  Baehr,  Symbolik  des  mosaischen 
Aultii^,  II,  643—652;  Edersheim,  The  Temple,  Chapter  XIII. 


346  OLD  TESTAMENT  FESTIVALS. 

There  are  several  notices  of  subsequent  celebrations  of  this  fes- 
tival, 1  Kings  8,  2;  2  Chron.  5,  3.  But  the  most  joyous  occasion 
which  is  recorded  in  the  Old  Testament  in  connection  with  the  fes- 
tival was  at  the  time  of  Ezra  and  Nehemiah,  when  the  people  took 
olive  branches,  and  palm  branches,  and  branches  of  trees  with  dense 
foliage  to  make  booths,  and  there  was  very  great  gladness,  Neh.  8, 
14—18. 

The  Feast  of  Tabernacles  was  especially  rich  in  symbolical  acts 
and  customs,  according  the  account  of  Edersheim.  The  ceremony  of 
fetching  and  pouring  out  water  from  the  pool  of  Siloam  was  one 
which  was  followed  with  almost  breathless  interest,  especially  since 
the  pool  at  times  contained  "living  water,"  from  the  action  of  a 
spring  in  the  rock,  from  whose  pool  the  water  was  siphoned  over  to 
Siloam,  Is.  12,  3;  John  7,  38.  Another  ceremony  was  the  lighting  of 
four  golden  candelabra  filled  with  oil  at  the  close  of  the  first  day  of 
the  feast,  their  combined  splendor  yielding  a  great  light  which  shone 
out  over  Jerusalem  and  the  surrounding  country,  Is.  9;  Is.  60;  John 
8,  12;  Eev.  7,  9.  10.  The  fact  also  that  the  festival  was  the  feast  of 
the  ingathering  at  the  year's  end,  the  harvest  feast  of  thankfulness, 
served  as  a  type.  Is.  25,  6 — 8;  Eev.  21,  4. 

Beside  these  great  festivals,  on  which  it  was  obligatory  for  all 
members  of  the  Jewish  Church  to  appear  in  Jerusalem,  there  were 
several  minor  festivals  that,  in  some  respects,  possess  even  more  in- 
terest for  us  than  some  of  the  others.  The  first  of  these  is  the  Day  of 
Atonement,  Lev.  16,  1—34;  Lev.  23,  26—32;  Num.  29,  7—11.  The 
ritual  of  the  day  was  extremely  complicated,  and  the  entire  respon- 
sibility rested  upon  one  man,  the  high  priest,  who  officiated  alone  in 
the  bringing  of  the  sacrifices.  The  festival  was  on  the  10th  of  Tishri. 
The  high  priest,  for  this  day,  in  the  bringing  of  the  special  sacrifices 
wore  white  linen  garments.  He  first  took  a  bullock  and  killed  it  as 
a  sin  offering,  to  make  an  atonement  for  himself  and  for  his  house. 
He  also  received  two  goats  from  the  people,  setting  one  aside  for  a 
sin  offering  for  the  people  and  the  other  for  a  scai)egoat.  After  kil- 
ling the  bullock,  he  took  a  censer  full  of  sweet  incaise  and  filled  the 
most  holy  place  with  its  smoke.  He  then  entered  the  most  holy  for 
the  second  time  with  the  blood  of  the  bullock,  sprinkling  it  upon  the 
mercy  seat  and  before  the  mercy  seat  seven  times.  He  then  killed 
the  goat  of  the  sin  offering  for  the  people,  sprinkling  its  blood  also 
upon  the  mercy  seat  and  before  the  mercy  seat,  thus  making  an  atone- 
ment for  the  transgression  of  the  children  of  Israel.  He  next  took 
the  remaining  blood  of  the  bullock  and  the  goat  and  put  it  upon  the 
horns  of  the  altar,  sprinkling  it  with  his  finger  seven  times.  He 
finally  took  the  live  goat,  laid  upon  its  head,  by  confession,  the  in- 


OLD  TESTAMENT  FESTIVALS.  347 

iquities  of  the  children  of  Israel,  and  had  him  led  away  by  the  hand 
of  a  fit  man  into  the  wilderness.  Thus  was  the  Azazel,  which,  accord- 
ing to  Edersheim,  means  "wholly  put  aside,  wholly  sent  away."  The 
high  priest  also  had  charge  of  the  burnt  offering  on  this  day  and  of 
the  fat  of  the  sin  offering,  thus  making  full  atonement  for  himself 
and  for  the  people.  On  the  evening  of  this  day,  the  ordinary  sacrifice 
was  made. 

That  this  festival  in  its  chief  features  was  altogether  a  type  of 
the  great  sacrifice  of  the  New  Testament  is  evident  even  from  Zech. 
3,  3.  4;  Is.  1,  18.  The  writer  of  the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews  goes  into 
the  symbolism  in  great  detail,  especially  in  chap.  9,  7.  11.  12.  No- 
where is  the  fact  that  the  Old  Covenant  was  a  shadow  of  things  to 
come  so  apparent  as  in  the  sacrifices  of  the  Jews,  and  above  all  in 
that  of  the  Day  of  Atonement. 

Though  every  new  moon  was  a  special  holy  day  for  the  Jewish 
Church,  yet  that  of  the  seventh  month,  the  1st  of  Tishri,  was  desig- 
nated as  a  special  festival,  the  Feast  of  the  Seventh  New  Moon,  or  of 
Trumpets,  or  New  Year's  Day,  since  the  civil  year  began  with  this 
day.  Num.  29, 1 — 6 ;  10,  10 ;  28,  11 — 15.  A  holy  convocation  was  com- 
manded, and  special  offerings  were  made,  burnt  offerings:  one  young 
bullock,  one  ram,  and  seven  lambs  of  the  first  year;  meat  offering, 
flour  mingled  with  oil;  sin  offering,  one  kid  of  the  goats,  beside  the 
regular  offerings  of  the  new  moon.  Num.  28,  11 — 15.  At  the  morning 
sacrifice  Ps.  81  was  chanted,  at  the  evening  sacrifice  Ps.  29.  Trum- 
pets and  horns  were  blown  at  the  temple  and  throughout  Jerusalem 
all  day.  The  symbolical  meaning  of  this  day  is  probably  referred  to 
Eph.  5,  14.  8.394) 

Three  of  the  Jewish  festivals  at  the  time  of  Christ  were  of  post- 
Mosaic  origin.  The  first  of  these  was  the  Feast  of  Purim  or  of 
Esther,  Esther  3,  7;  9,  21—26.  32;  2  Mace.  15,  36;  John  5,  1.  It  was 
celebrated  on  the  13th  and  14th  of  Adar  (March),  and  later  extended 
also  to  the  15th,  the  13th  being  the  Feast  of  Esther,  the  14th  Purim 
or  the  Feast  of  Haman,  and  the  15th  Purim  proper.  The  festival 
commemorated  and  celebrated  the  delivery  of  the  Jews  from  the  evil 
designs  of  Haman  and  was  therefore  kept  with  great  merriment  and 
rejoicing.  Friends  sent  one  another  presents,  and  expressions  of 
good  will  were  exchanged  on  all  sides.  The  mode  of  celebrating  is 
described  at  length  in  the  Tract  Megillah  of  the  Talmud. 

The  second  of  the  post-Mosaic  festivals  was  the  Feast  of  the 
Dedication  of  the  Temple  or  Chachunah,  1  Mace.  4,  52 — 59.     It  is 


394)  Cp.  Edersheim,  The  Temple,  Chapter  XV.  For  the  whole  sec- 
tion, Kliefoth.  I,  143—170;  Goodwin,  Moses  et  Aaron,  III,  Cap.  IV— VIII; 
Baehr,  Symbolik  des  mosaischcn  Kultus,  II,  613 — 698. 


348  FESTIVALS  or  THE  EABLT  CHUECH. 

also  called  the  Feast  of  Lights.^^)  It  was  instituted  by  Judas  Mac- 
cabeus, 164  B.  C,  after  the  recovery  of  the  Jewish  independence. 
He  removed  the  altar  which  had  been  polluted  by  the  heathen  and 
purified  the  temple.  The  festival  was  held  on  the  25th  of  Chisleu 
(December),  and  extended  over  eight  days,  with  great  pomp  and  cere- 
mony, the  Hallel  being  sung  in  the  temple  services  each  day.  It  also 
commemorate^  the  desceiit  of  the  fire  from  heaven  upon  the  first  al- 
tar, together  with  the  relighting  of  the  fire  upon  the  purified  altar. 
(John  10,  22.) 

The  last  festival  was  the  Feast  of  Wood-Offering,  on  the  15th  of 
Ab  (August),  Neh.  10,  34;  13,  31.  At  this  time,  offerings  of  wood 
for  the  use  of  the  temple  were  made  by  all  the  people.  It  is  described 
in  Tract  Taan,  iv,  of  the  Talmud,  and  in  Josephus.396) 


CHAPTER  2. 
Festivals  of  the  Early  Church. 

There  are  no  festivals  or  holidays  by  divine  appointment  in  the 
ISTew  Testament.  The  festivals  of  the  Old  Testament,  including  the 
Sabbath,  were  abrogated  by  Christ,  since  the  mere  external  observance 
of  hours  and  days  cannot  be  meritorious  in  the  sight  of  God,  Matt. 
12,  8;  Luke  6,  5.  And  St.  Paul  was  especially  insistent  upon  pre- 
serving the  liberty  of  the  New  Testament  Church  unimpaired  in  this 
respect.  Col.  2,  16;  Gal.  4,  10;  Rom.  14,  5.  He  emphasized  the  neces- 
sity of  having  meetings  for  the  preaching  of  the  Word  and  for  the 
celebration  of  Holy  Communion,  Eom.  10,  14 — 17;  1  Cor.  11,  20.  21, 
but  he  would  have  nothing  of  a  law  laid  upon  the  necks  of  the  disci- 
ples as  a  yoke  to  force  them  back  into  the  bondage  of  legalistic  minu- 
tiae, which  neither  their  fathers  nor  they  had  been  able  to  bear,  Acts 
15,  10. 

When  the  Christian  congregation  of  Jerusalem  had  been  founded 
by  the  miracle  of  Pentecost,  the  Christians  held  daily  assemblies  in 
the  temple  and  in  the  houses,  Acts  2,  46.  It  was  not  long,  however, 
before  the  first  day  of  the  week  became  the  acknowledged  day  for  di- 
vine worship,  Acts  20,  7;  1  Cor.  16,  2;  Eev.  1,  10.  Por  the  early 
Christians,  therefore,  every  week  brought  a  renewal  of  the  memorial 
of  Christ's  suffering  and  death,  and  every  Sunday  reminded  them  of 
the  resurrection  of  their  Lord.  Some  of  the  earliest  documents  speak 
of  the  celebration  of  Sunday  in  this  manner.  In  the  Epistle  to  Bar- 
nabas a  whole  chapter  is  devoted  to  the  discussion  of  the  Sabbath, 


395)  Josephus,  Antiquities  of  the  Jews,  XII:  7,  7. 

396)  Wars  of  the  Jexcs,  II:   17,  6;   Edersheim,  The  Temple,  Chapter 
X\II. 


FESTIVALS  OF  THE  EAELY  CHURCH.  349 

and  the  author  closes  with  the  words:  ''Wherefore  we  also  celebrate 
with  gladness  the  eighth  day  in  which  Jesus  also  arose  from  the  dead, 
and  was  made  manifest,  and  ascended  into  heaven."  ^^)  The  words 
of  Ignatius,  in  his  letter  to  the  Magnesians,  Chapter  IX,  are  also  com- 
monly understood  of  the  Sunday:  "If  then  they  who  walked  in  an- 
cient customs  came  to  a  new  hope,  no  longer  living  for  the  Sabbath, 
but  for  the  Lord's  day,  on  which  also  our  life  sprang  up  through  Him 
and  His  death."  398)  The  well-known  letter  of  Plinius,  governor  of 
Bithj-nia-Pontus,  also  mentions  a  "status  dies,"  a  fixed  day  which  it 
was  their  custom  to  observe  r^ularly.  That  this  can^hardly  have 
l>een  any  other  day  but  Sunday,  is  evident  from  the  First  Apology  of 
Justinian,  Chapter  67,  written  only  a  few  decades  later,  in  which  he 
expressly  states:  "And  on  the  day  called  Sunday  a  convocation  of 
all  takes  place.  .  .  .  Sunday  is  the  day  on  which  we  all  hold  one  com- 
mon assembly,  because  it  is  the  first  day,  on  which  God,  having 
wrought  a  change  in  the  darkness  and  matter,  made  the  world,  and 
Jesus  Christ  our  Savior  on  the  same  day  rose  from  the  dead."  399) 
At  the  time  of  TertuUian  (died  220)  this  day  of  the  Christians  was 
so  strongly  marked  from  the  services  of  the  feriae  that  the  suspicions 
of  some  were  aroused  as  though  they  were  sun- worshipers  (die  solis 
laetitiam  curare).  Origen  (died  253)  devotes  a  large  part  of  his  52d 
Homilia  de  tenipore  to  the  discussion  of  Sunday  and  its  celebra- 
tion.'**^) At  the  beginning  of  the  fourth  century,  Eusebius  wrote  of 
the  Dies  dominica:  "We  celebrate  every  week  on  Sunday  the  mys- 
teries of  the  true  Lamb,  by  whom  we  have  been  redeemed."^**!)  The 
custom  of  the  Church  was  made  a  requirement  of  the  state  by  Con- 
stantine  the  Great,  who  issued  the  order  that  the  Sunday  should  be 
given  over  to  devotional  exercises.*^^)  Since  that  time,  the  Sunday 
has  been  the  day  of  rest  and  of  religious  exercises  wherever  the  in- 
fluence of  Christianity  extended.'**^^) 

The  earliest  festival  of  the  Christian  Church  is  Easter.  Its  cele- 
bration is  also  so  ancient  that  it  may  well  be  said  to  extend  back  to 
the  time  of  the  apostles,  although  there  are  such  as  doubt  that  the 
passage  1  Cor.  5,  6 — 8  refers  to  a  New  Testament  celebration.  So  far 
as  extant  documents  show,  there  was  never  any  question  as  to  the 
celebration,  but  only  as  to  the  date  of  the  celebration.  The  Jewish 
Christians  celebrated  the  Passover  on  the  14th  of  Nisan  and  the 
Resurrection  on  the  16th  of  the  month.  This  usually  resulted  in  a 
day  different  from  Sunday,  where  the  Jewish  calendar  was  not  used. 
The  Greek  Christians  had  always  celebrated  the  Sunday  in  commemo- 


397)  Lake,  The  Apostolic  Fathers.  I,  397.  398)  P.  205. 

399)  St.  Louis,  Ed.,  73.         400)  Alt,  Der  kirchliche  Gottesdienst,  24. 
401)  Kellner,  Heortology,  8.  402)  Alt,  25. 

403)   Cp.  Alt,  30—32. 


350  FESTIVALS  OF  THE  EARLY  CHUBCH. 

ration,  of  the  resurrection  and  therefore  wanted  to  keep  this  day,  even 
under  the  Julian  calendar.  Two  customs  thus  soon  became  prevalent : 
the  Alexandrinian  Church  celebrated  on  the  Sunday  after  the  14th  of 
Nisan,  even  if  this  were  the  15th,  the  Occidental  Church  chose  the 
16th  of  Nisan  if  it  was  a  Sunday,  or,  in  the  opposite  event,  the  fol- 
lowing Sunday.  For  a  while,  the  discrepancy  caused  little  comment, 
but  when  the  effort  to  establish  uniformity  of  practise  became  per- 
sistent, difficulties  arose.  In  the  year  160  A.  D.,  Bishop  Polycarp  of 
Smyrna  made  a  journey  to  Rome  and  attempted  at  that  time  to  reach 
an  agreement  with  Bishop  Anicetus.  He  based  his  Quartodecimanian 
views  upon  the  custom  as  handed  down  from  St.  John,  while  Anicetus 
stood  firmly  upon  the  tradition  in  Rome.  In  spite  of  the  difference 
of  opinion,  however,  there  was  no  schism.  The  controversy  became 
acute  about  ten  years  later,  at  Laodicea,  and  still  more  serious  since 
193  A.  D.,  when  Victor  of  Ronae  attacked  the  Alexandrinian  practise. 
Synods  were  held  in  Rome,  in  Palestine,  in  Pontus,  in  Gaul,  in  Co- 
rinth, and  elsewhere.  Polycrates  of  Ephesus  became  just  as  emphatic 
in  his  denunciation  of  the  western  method  as  the  Occidentals  had 
been  in  their  rejection  of  his.  The  threatened  schism  was  averted  by 
Irenaeus  of  Lyon.  His  suggestion  that  Easter  should  be  celebrated 
only  between  March  22  and  April  20  met  with  general  approval  and 
was  resolved  upon  by  a  Synod  of  Caesarea  in  198,  but  the  Quarto- 
deciminian  custom  persisted. 

The  question  as  to  the  date  of  Easter  was  finally  settled  by  the 
Council  of  Nicea,  in  326.  According  to  the  account  of  Epiphanius 
the  resolution  read :  "The  first  Sunday  after  the  full  moon  of  spring 
shall  be  celebrated  as  the  day  of  Resurrection.  If  the  full  moon  be  on 
a  Sunday,  the  celebration  of  Easter  shall  be  a  week  later."  This  was 
a  compromise  between  the  Oriental  and  Occidental  views,  and  was 
adopted  by  all  the  bishops  of  the  East  and  many  of  the  West,  especi- 
ally of  Milan,  but  not  by  the  bishop  of  Rome.  The  Alexandrinian 
bishops  were  designated  as  the  committee  for  fixing  the  exact  date 
for  every  year,  which  was  then  announced  in  all  the  churches  on 
Epiphany.  The  Roman  bishops  continued  to  follow  their  own  way  of 
computing  the  date  of  Easter.  This  resulted  in  unpleasant  differen- 
ces, since  in  387  Easter  was  on  March  21  according  to  the  Roman, 
and  on  April  25  according  to  the  Alexandrinian  way  of  figuring. 
There  were  difficulties  again,  in  444  and  455,  but  since  532  the  Eas- 
tern mode  has  been  in  force,  which  upholds  the  resolution  of  Nicea, 
according  to  which  the  earliest  date  of  Easter  is  March  22,  the  latest 
April  25.404) 


404)  Alt,  Das  Kir  Chen  jahr,  14 — 18;  Kliefotn,  Die  urspruenyliche 
Qottesdienstordnung,  I,  344 — 346;  II,  95;  Loehe,  Haus-,  Schul-  und  Kir- 
cheniuch,  II,  22 — 24;  Horn,  Outlines  of  Liturgies,  22;  Memoirs,  VII:   5. 


FESTIVALS  OF  THB  EAELT  CHURCH.  351 

From  very  early  days  Easter  was  preceded  by  a  special  period  of 
preparation,  called  the  Lenten  season.  The  custom  of  fasting  was 
observed  very  generally  from  an  early  date,  but  there  was  a  great 
diversity  as  to  the  length  of  the  period.  Irenaeus  mentions  one,  two, 
and  more  days.  Eight  days  seems  to  have  been  an  average  period  at 
first,  but  a  season  of  forty  days,  after  the  analogy  of  the  Lord's  temp- 
tation, Matt.  4,  1 — 11,  was  soon  accepted.  The  mode  of  distributing 
these  forty  days  varied.  Li  the  West,  the  Sundays  were  excepted, 
putting  Lent  back;  in  the  East  only  five  fast  days  in  the  week  were 
observed,  thus  extending  the  time  still  farther  back,  so  that  it  began 
eight  weeks  before  Easter.  The  original  length  of  Lent  in  the  4th 
century,  according  to  Eusebius,  Cyril  of  Jerusalem,  Ambrose,  etc., 
having  been  forty  days  or  six  weeks,  the  extra  weeks  were  later  known 
as  the  Quadragesima  and  the  Fast.  Since  the  six  weeks,  according 
to  the  Occidental  reckoning,  did  not  include  a  full  forty  days'  num- 
ber of  fast  days,  Gregory  II  (715 — 731)  is  said  to  have  fixed  the  Wed- 
nesday now  known  as  Ash  Wednesday  as  the  first  day  of  Lent.  The 
season  of  preparation  closed  with  the  Great  or  Black  Week,  also 
called  the  Holy  Week  or  Week  of  the  Passion.  The  first  day  of  this 
week  was  Palm  Sunday,  which  introduced  the  week  of  deepest  sorrow 
and  repentance  in  the  whole  year.  Every  day  in  this  week  has  its 
own  significance,  even  from  olden  times,  for  which  reason  even  the 
Apostolic  Constitutions  made  the  rule  that  servants  be  free  from 
work,  in  order  that  they  might  devote  themselves  to  proper  study  of 
the  passion  story  and  to  devotional  exercises.  It  was  also  the  rule,  at 
least  in  the  Orient,  that  the  feriae  of  Holy  Week  be  observed  with 
the  strictest  manner  of  fasting.  The  so-called  xerophagia,  consisting 
of  bread,  salt,  vegetables,  and  water,  was  the  only  food  which  was 
permitted. 

The  Thursday  of  Holy  Week  commemorated  the  institution  of 
the  Holy  Supper.  Since  the  Gospel  of  the  day  was  John  13,  1 — 15, 
the  day  was  also  known  as  the  Day  of  Foot-washing.  Its  present 
English  name  Maundy  Thursday  is  derived  either  from  the  words  in 
the  Gospel :  Mandatum  novum  do  vobis,  or  from  the  custom  of  carry- 
ing gifts  to  the  poor  in  maund(y)  baskets  on  that  day.  It  was  the 
custom  to  have  Holy  Communion  on  the  evening  of  this  day,  and  the 
ceremony  of  foot-washing  was  found  in  parts  of  the  Church  from 
olden  times.  The  name  dies  competentium  is  derived  from  the  cus- 
tom of  having  the  photizomenoi  or  illuminati,  the  catechumens  that 
had  been  prepared  for  Baptism,  make  a  public  confession  of  their 
faith,  by  saying  the  Creed. 

Good  Friday  was,  almost  from  the  first,  the  dies  crucis  or  domi- 
nica  passionis,  Parasceve,  a  day  of  deepest  mourning,  with  a  complete 


352  FESTIVALS  OF  THE  EARLY  CHURCH. 

fast  till  3  or  6  o'clock  in  the  afternoon.  The  services  were  reduced  to 
a  simple  reading  of  the  passion  story.  In  some  churches,  no  form. of 
service  was  prescribed,  the  faithful  merely  coming  together  for  silent 
prayer.  In  Spain  it  was  even  custom,  for  a  while,  to  close  the  churches 
entirely  on  this  day,  as  a  sign  of  deepest  sorrow. 

Just  as  the  time  before  Easter  had  been  a  period  of  rei)entance, 
of  fasting  and  prayer,  so  the  season  opening  with  Easter  Sunday  was 
one  of  great  joy  from  the  earliest  times.  It  ended  in  a  burst  of  special 
rejoicing,  with  the  festival  of  Pentecost,  fifty  days  after  Easter.  This 
festival  may  also  be  of  very  ancient  date,  perhaps  going  back  to  the 
time  of  the  apostles,  and  celebrated  as  the  birthday  of  the  Church, 
though  the  passage  1  Cor.  16,  8  can  hardly  be  regarded  as  one  that 
refers  to  the  Christian  festival.  Tertullian  calls  the  whole  time  from 
Easter  to  Pentecost  by  the  latter  name,  and  gives  to  each  day  of  the 
entire  period  the  importance  and  dignity  of  a  Sunday.  According  to 
Augustine,  the  Hallelujah  was  used  only  during  this  period  of  great 
joy  (ut  Alleluia  per  solos  dies  quinquaginta  cantetur  in  ecclesia). 

Within  the  fifty  days  of  rejoicing,  on  the  fortieth  day,  came  the 
festival  of  the  Ascension,  which  is  mentioned  by  Eusebius  and  may 
have  been  celebrated  at  the  end  of  the  3d  century.  Augustine  gives 
to  it  equal  rank  with  Easter  and  Pentecost,  and  Chrysostomus  ex- 
plains its  significance  at  length.  In  the  Orient,  especially,  the  em- 
phasis of  the  day  was  placed  upon  the  fact  that  the  human  nature  of 
Christ  was  now  exalted,  and  therefore  the  work  of  redemption  brought 
to  its  final  glorious  conclusion.  This  is  also  the  feature  which  is- 
emphasized  in  the  Apostolic  Constitutions. 

In  the  early  Church  less  stress  was  laid  upon  the  birthday  of  the 
Lord  than  upon  the  fact  that  the  Son  of  God  actually  became  man, 
that  His  epiphaneia  is  the  truth,  John  1,  14 ;  Tit.  2,  11 ;  3,  4 ;  2  Tim. 
1,  10;  1  John  4,  9.  Accordingly,  we  find  a  festival  celebrating  this 
fact  as  early  as  the  time  of  Clement  of  Alexandria  (died  ca.  216). 
It  was  known  as  he  epiphaneia  or  ta  theophania,  Eestum  Epiphaniae, 
Dies  manifestationis  Domini.  The  6th  of  January  was  the  accepted 
date  for  this  festival  at  the  end  of  the  third  century.  It  commemora- 
ted not  only  the  birth  of  Christ,  but  also  His  baptism  and,' in  some 
cases.  His  first  miracle,  thus  expressing  very  well  the  general  idea  of 
the  revelation  and  manifestation  of  the  divinity  of  Christ  in  His 
humanity.  The  inscriptions  in  the  catacombs  show  that  the  story  of 
the  wise  men  of  the  East  and  of  the  miracle  of  Cana  were  the  chief 
subjects  of  the  festival. 

The  celebration  of  Christmas  as  the  birthday  of  our  Lord  on  De- 
cember 25  goes  back  to  the  middle  of  the  fourth  century.  Tradition 
says  that  Pope  Julius  I  (336 — 352)  had  the  imperial  archives  of  Eome 


FESTIVALS  OF  THE  EARLY  CHURCH.  353 

searched  for  the  exact  date  of  the  birth  of  Christ  and  found  that  this 
was  the  correct  day,  according  to  the  tax  lists.  The  careful  research 
work  of  Tille^^'^)  and  of  Usener*^)  have  established  beyond  a  doubt 
that  Pope  Liberius  fixed  the  celebration  of  Christmas  for  December 
25,  in  354.  There  is  a  record  from  the  year  360,  showing  that  it  was 
celebrated  at  that  time.407)  By  the  year  385  it  was  well-known,  since 
Jerome  and  others  mention  it.  There  is  a  Christmas  sermon  of  Chry- 
sostomus  preserved,  which  he  held  on  December  25,  386.  He  mentions 
that  the  East  was  not  yet  unanimous  with  regard  to  the  festival,  but 
that  it  was  nevertheless  firmly  established.^^) 

Just  as  Easter  had  its  season  of  preparation,  a  similar  i)eriod 
came  into  use  for  Christmas.  The  length  of  the  Advent  season  varied 
according  to  some  of  the  old  Comites,  Milan  observing  five  Sundays, 
also  Jerome,  Rome  only  four.  The  time  was  regarded  as  tempus 
clausum,  but  not  in  the  same  degree  as  Lent.  The  custom  of  having 
four  Sundays  agreed  with  the  four  milleniums  before  the  coming 
of  Christ. 

Since  the  beginning  of  the  5th  century  the  number  of  festivals 
increased  very  rapidly,  a  fact  which  sheds  some  light  upon  the  trend 
of  matters  in  comparison  with  the  earlier  practise.  Tertullian  (died 
220)  knows  only  Easter  and  Pentecost,  Origen  mentions  Easter, 
Parasceve,  and  Pentecost.  The  Law  of  389  recognized  also  Christmas 
and  Epiphany.  By  a  law  of  Theodosius  IT,  of  425,  spectacles  were 
forbidden  on  all  Sundays,  Christmas,  Epiphany,  and  during  the  whole 
period  from  Easter  to  Pentecost.  But  in  the  5th  century,  Perpetuus 
gives  the  list  of  festivals  of  St.  Martin  of  Tours:  Natalis  Domini, 
Epiphania,  Natalis  S.  Joannis  (June  24),  Natalis  S.  Petri  episco- 
patus  (Feb.  22),  Pascha,  Dies  Ascensionis,  Pentecoste,  Passio  S. 
Joannis,  Natalis  SS.  Petri  et  Pauli,  Natalis  S.  Martiani,  and  others. 
The  Statutes  of  Sonnatius,  Bishop  of  Rheims,  614 — 631,  name  the 
following  festivals:  Nativitas  Domini,  Circumcisio,  Epiphania,  An- 
nunciatio  Beatae  Mariae,  Resurrexio  Domini  cum  die  sequente,  As- 
censio  Domini,  dies  Pentecostis,  Nativitas  beati  Joannis  Baptistae, 
Nativitas  Apostolorum  Petri  et  Pauli,  Assumptio  Beatae  Mariae, 
eiusdem  Nativitas,  Nativitas  Andreae  Apostoli  et  omnes  dies  domini- 
cales.*''^)     Other  lists  are  given  in  Migne.'*^'') 

For  the  sake  of  having  a  summary,  the  following  list  of  festivals 
at  the  beginning  of  the  Middle  Ages  will  serve :   1)  Nativitas  Domini 


405)  Die  Geschichte  der  deutschen  Weihnacht.   1893. 

406)  Das  WeihnachMeHt.    1911.  407)   Kliefoth,  III,  41. 

408)  Cp.  Horn,  22—24;   .Vlt,  Das  Kirchenjahr,  34 — 13;  Kliefoth,  III, 
41;  Loehe.  II.  28—40. 

409)  Kellner,  Henrlology,  20.  21;  Memoirs,  IV:  2. 

410)  Patroloyia  latiiia,  138,  832;  140,  640;   141,  260. 
Kretzmann,  Christian  Art.  23 


354  GROWTH  OF  CATHOLIC  CHUECH  YEAR. 

nostri  Jesu  Christi,  2)  Epiphania,  3)  Pascha,  4)  Ascensio  Domini, 
5)  Pentecostes,  6)  Anniversarium  Passionis,  7)  Anniversarium  Re- 
surrectionis,  8)  Praesentatio  Jesus  seu  Purificationis  B.  M.  V.  (Feb. 
2),  9)  Dormitio  seu  Assumptio  B.  M.  V.  (Aug.  15),  10)  S,  Michaelis 
Archangeli  (Sept.  29  or  30),  11)  Omnium  SS.  Martyrum,  12)  SS. 
Macchabaeorum  (Aug.  1),  13)  S.  Joannis  Baptistae  (June  24), 
14)  S.  Stephani  Protomartyris  (Dec.  26),  15)  SS.  Petri  et  Pauli 
(Orient  in  December,  Occident  June  29) — Cathedra  Petri  (Feb. 
22),  S.  Andreae  (Nov.  30)  — ,  16)  SS.  "Jacobi  Majoris  et  Joannis 
Apostoli  (Dec.  27  or  28),  17)  SS.  Philippi  et  Jacobi  Minoris  (May  1), 
18)  SS.  Innocentium  (Dec.  28),  19)  S.  Sixti  Papae,  d.  258  (Aug.  1 
or  6),  20)  SS.  Perpetuae  et  Felicitatis,  d.  203  (March  7),  21)  S.  Fla- 
viani  seu  Fabiani  (May  5).*ii) 

The  next  chapter  will  show  to  what  extent  the  introduction  of 
festivals  was  carried  which  had  begun  in  so  gradual  a  manner.  For 
during  the  Middle  Ages  the  Church  was  secularized,  and  the  world 
boldly  entered  in  at  the  portals  which  had  been  erected  to  conquer  her. 


CHAPTER  3. 
The  Growth  of  the  Specific  Roman  Catholic  Church  Year. 

The-  development  of  the  church  year  with  the  cast  or  specific 
characteristics  of  the  Roman  Catholic  Church  may  be  said  to  extend 
back  to  Gregory  the  Great  (590 — 694).  It  was  he  who  was  the  father 
of  the  liturgy  as  used  in  the  Roman  Church ;  it  was  he  who  developed 
the  idea  of  the  Mass  in  connection  with  the  doctrine  of  purgatory,  so 
that  the  final  result  was  the  abomination  of  the  sacrifice  for  the  living 
and  for  the  dead,  tam  pro  vivis  quam  pro  defunctis. 

The  so-called  great  or  principal  festivals,  Easter,  Pentecost,  and 
Christmas,  were  in  general  use  throughout  the  Church  at  the  begin- 
ning of  the  7th  century.  The  period  of  preparation  for  Christmas 
had  been  a  Quadragesimal  fast  in  the  Galilean  Church,  beginning  on 
Nov.  11.  In  other  parts  of  the  Church  this  time  had  also  included 
five  or  six  Sundays,  according  to  Baeumer  (p.  289),  especially  in 
Milan.  The  Roman  Church  ordered  the  fast  of  Advent  to  begin  on 
the  Sunday  after  St.  Catherine  (Nov.  25),  which  gave  the  number  of 
days  till  Jan.  6  a  total  of  forty,  if  one  were  inclined  to  insist  upon 
that  amount,  and  also  wanted  to  include  the  Epiphany  festival  for 
the  sake  of  those  that  held  this  in  special  reverence.  The  Advent 
season  proper  now  includes  only  four  Sundays  and  is  celebrated  as  a 
time  of  repentance  and  sorrow,  a  fact  which  is  symbolized  by  the 


411)   Baeumer,  183  ff. 


GROWTH  OF  CATHOLIC  CHUBCH  TEAB.  355 

wearing  of  violet  vestments.  The  instrumental  or  orchestral  accom- 
paniment is  not  permitted  during  this  season,  only  the  voice  and  tho 
organ  being  allowed. 

The  festival  of  Christmas  was  celebrated  with  three  masses,  the 
first  one  at  midnight,  the  second  at  dawn,  and  the  third  at  the  usual 
time  in  the  morning.  At  the  festival  itself  and  during  the  twelve 
days  which  followed,  up  to  and  inclusive  of  Epiphany  (feria  duode- 
naria,  Shakespeare's  Twelfth  Night),  white  vestments  were  worn  and 
used  for  hangings  and  decorations.  The  churches  to  this  day  are 
lighted  up  most  brilliantly  and  some  representation  of  the  Nativity 
is  usually  found,  a  stable  or  cave  with  a  manger  which  serves  as  the 
bed  of  the  Christ-child.  Joseph  and  Mary  are  in  the  foreground,  an 
ox  and  an  ass  in  the  background.  On  one  side  are  shown  the  shep- 
herds with  their  flocks,  on  the  other  usually  the  wise  men  from  the 
East.  The  Christmas  cycle  includes  the  festival  of  the  Circumcision, 
on  Jan.  1,  which  is  incidentally  the  octave  of  Christmas,  and  is  con- 
cluded with  Epiphany.  The  latter  festival  has  given  occasion  for 
various  legendary  additions  to  the  Scriptural  account,  the  Venerable 
Bede  not  only  insisting  that  the  Magi  were  kings,  but  also  giving  the 
names  Caspar,  Melchior,  and  Balthasar.  For  this  reason,  Epiphany 
was  widely  known  as  the  Festival  of  the  Three  Kings.  In  some  coun- 
tries, it  was  calletl  the  Festival  of  the  Star,  and  the  custom  was  for 
the  lower  clergy  and  the  choir  boys  to  march  from  house  to  house 
with  carols,  led  by  a  star. 

The  number  of  Sundays  after  Epiphany  depends  upon  the  date 
upon  which  Easter  falls.  If  Easter  is  very  early,  there  is  only  one 
Sunday  after  Epiphany,  if  it  is  on  one  of  the  last  possible  days,  there 
are  six.  The  color  of  the  Epiphany  period,  beginning  with  its  octave, 
is  green.  The  second  Sunday  is  commonly  known  as  the  Festival  of 
the  Name  of  Jesus. 

The  time  of  fasting  and  preparation  for  Easter  begins  with  the 
Sunday  Septuagesima,  the  ninth  Sunday  before  Easter.  The  time 
from  this  Sunday  to  Ash  Wednesday  is  known  as  Pre-Lent  (Vor- 
fasten),  the  clergy  beginning  their  fasting  on  this  Sunday.  The  days 
from  Quinquagesima  till  Ash  Wednesday  were  known  as  Carnival 
days  and  given  over  to  all  manner  of  festivities,  masked  processions, 
and  theatrical  exhibitions.  Ash  Wednesday  was  the  signal  for  the 
beginning  of  the  Lenten  fast.  The  custom  of  placing  ashes  upon  the 
foreheads  of  the  attendents  at  church  services,  preceded  by  appro- 
priate ceremonies,  goes  back  at  least  to  the  end  of  the  11th  century. 
The  Sundays  in  Lent  are  known  after  the  first  words  of  their  in- 
troitus,  as  Invocavit  (Ps.  91,  15),  Reminiscere  (Ps.  25,  6),  Oculi  (Ps. 
25,  15),  Laetare  (Is.  66,  1),  and  Judica  (Ps.  43,  1).    Holy  Week  be- 


356  GROWTH  OF  CATHOLIC  CHURCH  TEAR. 

gins  with  Palm  Sunday  (dominica  palmarum),  on  which  the  blessing 
of  the  palms  and  the  procession  takes  place.  On  this  day  the  story 
of  the  Passion  according  to  St.  Matthew  is  read.  On  Tuesday  of 
Holy  Week  the  Passion  according  to  St.  Mark  is  read,  on  Wednesday 
according  to  St.  Luke,  and  on  Friday  according  to  St.  John.  Maundy 
Thursday  is  a  joyous  festival  (feria  quinta  in  coena  Domini),  with 
ringing  of  bells  and  Gloria  in  excelsis.  On  this  day,  the  benediction 
of  oil  takes  place  in  cathedral  churches,  and  the  denuding  of  the  altar 
in  all  churches,  also  the  ceremony  of  foot-washing  where  it  is  still 
practised.  On  Good  Friday  there  is  a  special  custom  of  the  Adoratio 
crucis,  followed  by  the  Depositio  crucis  in  a  special  sepulcrum.  After 
the  Mass  of  the  Presanctified,  with  elevation  of  the  sacred  host  from 
the  place  where  it  was  deposited  on  the  previous  day,  all  services 
cease,  and  the  deepest  quiet  prevails  in  the  church.  On  the  Great 
Sabbath,  everything  is  quiet  till  Vespers,  when  the  ceremony  of  the 
Benediction  of  Fire  and  of  Incense  takes  place,  followed  by  the  light- 
ing of  the  Easter  candle. 

The  celebration  of  Easter  begins  early  in  the  morning,  with  the 
dramatic  Elevatio  crucis,  a  joyous  procession,  followed  by  early  Mass. 
Still  more  elaborate  is  the  great  High  Mass,  in  which  the  Easter 
sequence  Victimae  paschali  laudes  immolent  Christiani  is  sung  with 
full  orchestral  and  organ  accompaniment.  The  Sundays  after  Easter 
are  Quasimodogeniti  or  Dominica  in  albis  (1  Pet.  2,  2),  Misericor- 
dias  Domini  (Ps.  89,  2),  Jubilate  (Ps.  66,  1),  Cantate  (Ps.  98,  1), 
Rogate  (Matt.  7,  7),  and  Exaudi  (Ps.  27,  7).  The  entire  time  is  re- 
garded as  a  period  of  great  joy,  symbolized  also  by  the  white  color  of 
the  vestments.  The  Sunday  Rogate  opens  the  Rogation  Days,  with 
a  daily  procession  in  preparation  for  Ascension  Day.  On  the  latter 
day,  which  is  celebrated  with  three  masses,  the  Easter  candle  is  ex- 
tinguished, as  a  sign  that  the  Lord  is  no  longer  present  visibly  on  earth. 

The  Festival  of  Pentecost  is  one  of  the  festivals  of  the  first  rank 
and  is  celebrated  accordingly.  A  feature  of  the  service  is  the  beauti- 
ful sequence  Veni  Sancte  Spiritus.  The  octave  of  Pentecost  is  now 
celebrated  as  Trinity  Sunday.  In  some  places  on  the  Continent  it 
was  observed  as  special  holiday  since  the  twelfth  century,  but  it  did 
not  receive  general  recognition  until  1334.  A  festival  which  is  en- 
tirely characteristic  of  the  Roman  Catholic  Church  is  the  Festum 
Corporis  Christi.  Celebrated  as  early  as  1247,  established  in  1264  by 
Urban  IV  as  a  general  festival,  ordered  to  be  held  once  more  in  1311, 
it  was  introduced  very  generally  a  few  years  later.^^^)  Thomas 
Acquinas  wrote  the  office,  which  is  a  liturgical  masterpiece.  In 
.Catholic  countries,  the  solemn  procession  with  the  host  is  made  in 


412)  Theol.  Quart.,  1915,  Jan.  and  Apr. 


GROWTH  OF  CATHOLIC  CHURCH  YEAR.  357 

public,  butun  other  countries  only  inside  the  church  or  on  the  church 
property. 

Of  especial  interest  in  the  consideration  of  the  Roman  Catholic 
church  year  are  the  festivals  of  the  virgin.  The  ^Festival  of  the  Be- 
trothal of  Mary  (Festum  Desponsationis  B.  M.  V.  cum  Josepho)  is 
celebrated  on  Jan.  23.  It  was  invented  in  1546  by  the  Franciscans 
and  established  as  a  general  festival  by  Benedict  XIII  in  1725,  but 
has  never  received  recognition  as  a  festival  of  the  first  rank.  The 
Festival  of  the  Purification  of  Mary  (Festum  Purificationis  B.  M.  V.) 
on  Feb.  2  is  considered  one  of  the  most  prominent.  Baronius  claims 
an  origin  under  Pope  Gclasius  (492 — 490),  but  documentary  evidence 
shows  that  it  was  introduced  by  Justinian  I  (died  565).  All  the  lec- 
tions of  the  day  were  farced  by  the  responsory :  Lumen.  The  special 
ceremony  of  the  day  is  the  benediction  of  the  candles,  their  distribu- 
tion to  the  people,  and  the  solemn  procession  with  the  lighted  tapers, 
hence  the  English  Candlemas,  the  German  Lichtmesz. 

Another  Mary  festival  of  the  first  rank  is  the  Feast  of  th^  An- 
nunciation (Festum  Aunuuciationis  B.  M.  V.)  on  March  25,  nine 
months  before  Christmas.  The  Armenian  Church  had  taken  the  6th 
of  January,  that  of  Milan  the  fourth  Sunday  in  Advent.  But  the 
fixation  of  the  date  of  the  nativity  in  the  West  determined  also  the 
date  of  the  Festum  Incarnationis  sive  Conceptiouis  Christi.  A  less 
important  festival  which  follows  shortly  after  this  is  the  Festum  VII 
Dolorum  Mariae,  on  the  Friday  before  Palm  Sunday.  It  seems  to 
have  been  celebrated  in  some  places  as  early  as  the  14th  century, 
becoming  general  in  the  15th  century  (about  1423).  The  seven 
dolors  of  Mary  are  1)  The  circumcision  of  Christ,  2)  The  flight  into 
Egypt,  3)  Losing  the  child  Jesus  in  the  temple,  4)  The  bearing  of 
the  cross,  5)  The  crucifixion,  6)  The  taking  down  from  the  cross, 
7)  The  burial. 

The  Festival  of  the  Visitation  (Festum  Visitationis  B.  M.  V.) 
on  July  2  was  originally  a  Franciscan  celebration,  since  1263.  In 
1389  Pope  Urban  VI  established  it  for  the  entire  Church.  To  en- 
courage the  celebration,  the  pope  granted  a  hundred  days'  indulgence 
to  every  one  attending  the  early  service  of  the  day.  Upon  this  fol- 
lowed the  smaller  Festival  of  Mary  from  Mount  Cafmel  (Festum 
Mariae  de  Monte  Carm^lo)  on  July  16.  It  is  the  special  festival  of 
the  Carmelites,  who  claim  to  have  received  a  scapular  by  the  hands 
of  the  virgin  herself,  in  the  year  1251. 

A  festival  which  was  celebrated  with  extraordinary  pomp  and 
show  almost  from  its  establishment,  is  the  Festival  of  the  Assumption 
(Festum  Dormitionis.  Assumptionis,  Depositionis,  Pausationis  Ma- 
riae) on  Aug.  15.    It  is  based  entirely  upon  apocryphal  material,  and 


358  GROWTH  OF  CATHOLIC  CHURCH  YEAR. 

its  earliest  traces  go  back  to  the  time  of  Epiphanius  (died  403).  The 
festival  is  first  mentioned  in  the  middle  of  the  seventh  centuiy,  and 
the  event  is  merely  spoken  of  as  dormitio  or  pausatio.  But  at  the 
Council  of  Aix-la-Chapelle  (818)  the  Assumptio  S,  Mariae  is  given 
as  a  festival,  and  after  the  time  of  Peter  Damiani  (died  1072)  it  has 
been  generally  accepted  as  the  truth,  though  the  assumption  has  not 
yet  been  declared  a  dogma  by  the  pope.  A  festival  of  equal  impor- 
tance is  that  of  the  Nativity  of  Mary  (Festum  Nativitatis  B.  M.  V.) 
on  Sept.  8.  In  the  Greek  Church,  the  day  has  been  observed  since 
the  middle  of  the  seventh  century.  In  the  West  it  was  celebrated 
quite  generally  in  the  tenth  century.  Since  the  Council  of  Lyon 
(1245)  and  Gregory  XI  (1271—1276)  it  is  one  of  the  chief  festivals 
of  the  Roman  Church.  On  the  next  day,  Sept.  9,  the  celebration  of 
the  Festival  of  th^  Name  of  Mary  (Festum  Nominis  B.  M.  V.)  is 
ordered.  It  is  a  minor  day,  celebrated  since  1513  in  Spain  and  made 
a  general  festival  by  Innocent  XI  in  1683. 

The  Festival  of  the  Joys  of  Mary  (Festum  Septem  Gaudiorum 
Mariae)  is  on  Sept.  24.  It  was  established  by  Pope  Benedict  XIII  in 
1727,  receiving  further  sanction  by  his  successor  in  1745.  The  joys 
of  Mary  which  are  commemorated  on  this  day  are  1)  The  annuncia- 
tion, 2)  The  visitation,  3)  The  birth  without  labor  pains,  4)  The 
adoration  of  the  wise  men,  5)  The  resurrection,  6)  The  sending  of 
the  Holy  Spirit,  7)  The  crowning  of  Mary  by  the  Father  and  the 
Son.  A  special  festival  of  Mary  is  also  the  Festival  of  the  Rosary 
(Festum  Rosarii  B.  M.  V.)  on  Oct.  1,  with  Oct.  3  or  the  first  Sunday 
in  October  as  alternates.  It  was  a  Dominican  festival  for  a  long 
time,  but  received  the  approval  of  Gregory  XIII  in  1573.  It  was  ex- 
tended over  the  whole  Church  by  Clement  XI  in  1716.  Its  object  is 
to  make  propaganda  for  the  telling  of  the  rosary  in  honor  of  the 
virgin  Mary. 

The  Festival  of  the  Presentation  of  Mary  (Festum  Praesenta- 
tionis  B.  M.  V.)  on  Nov.  21  was  celebrated  in  the  Orient  since  the 
eighth  century.  In  1372  Philip  of  Maizieres  brought  the  office  of  the 
day  to  Pope  Gregory  XI,  who  approved  its  celebration.  Sixtus  V 
(1585)  established  it  as  a  general  festival.  The  date  is  not  exactly 
eighty  days  after  that  of  the  nativity,  but  has  probably  been  set 
purposely.  ^ 

Of  equal  importance  is  the  Festival  of  the  Immaculate  Concep- 
tion (Festum  Immaculatae  Conceptionis)  on  Dec.  8.  In  the  11th 
century,  Anselm  of  Canterbury  (died  1109)  was  strongly  interested 
in  both  the  doctrine  and  the  festival.  In  spite  of  opposition,  the  cele- 
bration gained  a  foothold,  being  upheld  especially  by  the  Franciscans. 
In  1854  Pope  Pius  IX  made  the  doctrine  a  dogma  of  the  Church, 
thus  establishing  also  the  festival  beyond  contradiction. 


GROWTH  OF  CATHOLIC  CHURCH  YEAR.  359 

Of  the  small  festivals  of  Mary  which  have  never  gained  more 
than  local  importance,  the  Festum  Mariae  ad  Nives  (Aug.  5),  the 
Festum  Translationis  Almae  Domus  Lauretanae  B.  M.  V.  (Dec.  10), 
and  the  Festum  Patrocinii  B.  M,  V.  (third  Sunday  in  November) 
may  be  mentioned.*!^) 

A  feature  of  the  Catholic  calendar  are  also  the  many  saints'  and 
martyrs'  days  which  have  generally  been  accepted.  The  following 
may  be  mentioned  as  the  more  important  ones:  the  Festival  of  Peter 
and  Paul  (Natales  Apostolorum  Petri  et  Pauli)  on  June  29  and  30; 
All  Saints  (Festum  Omnium  Sanctorum)  on  Nov.  1;  the  Festival  of 
the  Chair  of  Peter  (Festum  Cathedrae  Petri)  on  Jan.  18;  the  Fes- 
tival of  the  Chains  of  Peter  (Festum  Catenarum  Petri)  on  August  1; 
the  Festival  of  the  Conversion  of  St.  Paul  (Festum  Conversionis 
Pauli)  on  Jan.  25;  St.  James  the  Elder,  on  July  25;  St.  John  the 
Evangelist,  on  Dec.  27  and  May  6;  St.  Andrew,  on  Nov.  30;  St.  Bar- 
tholomew, on  Aug.  24;  St.  Thomas,  on  Dec.  21;  St.  Matthew,  on 
Sept.  21;  St.  Philip,  on  May  1;  St.  James  the  Younger,  on  May  1; 
SS.  Simon  and  Judas,  on  Oct.  28;  St.  Matthias,  on  Feb.  24;  Divisio 
SS.  Apostolorum,  on  July  19;  St.  Murk,  on  April  25;  St.  Luke,  on 
Oct.  18;  Barnabas,  on  June  11;  Timotheus,  on  Jan.  24;  St.  John  the 
Baptist  (Festum  DecoUationis)  on  August  29;  St.  Stephen,  on  Dec. 
26;  Festum  Innocentium,  on  Dec.  28;  Mary  Magdalene,  on  July  22. 
In  addition  to  these  more  important  festivals,  there  are  so  many  days 
in  commemoration  of  bishops  and  teachers  of  the  Church,  of  martyrs, 
confessors,  and  saints,  of  the  cross  of  Christ  and  other  relics  that  the 
number  of  days  in  the  calendar  for  one  year  is  not  sufficient  for  them 
all,  and  in  many  instances  two  or  more  festivals  are  celebrated  on 
the  same  day.'*!'*)  Fortunately,  not  all  these  festivals  are  celebrated 
in  all  the  dioceses,  only  a  relatively  small  number  being  prescribed 
for  all  the  churches.  Urban  VII,  in  the  constitiition  Universa  per 
orbem,  Sept.  24,  1642,  fixed  the  following  holidays:  1)  Feasts  of  our 
Lord  —  Christmas,  Easter,  and  Pentecost,  with  the  two  following 
days.  New  Year,  Epiphany,  Ascension,  Trinity,  Corpus  Christi,  In- 
vention of  the  Cross;  2)  Feasts  of  our  Lady  —  Candlemas,  Annun- 
ciation, Assumption,  Nativity ;  3)  Saints'  Days  —  St.  Michael,  May 
8;  Nativity  of  St.  John  the  Baptist,  SS.  Peter  and  Paul;  St.  Andrew, 
St.  James,  St.  John,  St.  Thomas,  SS.  Philip  and  James,  St.  Bartho- 
lomew, St.  Matthew,  SS.  Simon  and  Jude,  St.  Matthias,  St.  Lawrence, 
St.  Silvester,  St.  Joseph,  St.  Anne,  All  Saints',  and  the  patron  saint 
of  the  country;  lesser  saints'  days  were  omitted.  Later  regulations 
reduced  the  saints'  days  to  minor  festivals.'*!^) 


413)  Cp.  Lehre  nnd  Wehre,  1912,  Dec;    Kliefoth,  III,  173—176;    Alt, 
Das  Kirchenjahr,  60—76.  414)  Alt,  76—106;  300—430. 

415)  Kellner,  Heortoloyy,  Part  I;  Alt,  432. 


360  GROWTH  OF  CATHOLIC  CHURCH  YEAR. 

The  present  chapter  would  hardly  be  complete  without  a  refer- 
ence to  the  liturgical  customs  which  were  in  use  in  many  dioceses 
during  the  Middle  Ages  and  have,  in  part,  been  retained  to  this  day. 
Luther's  criticism  of  the  Rorate  masses  during  Advent  as  giving 
occasion  for  grave  transgressions  of  the  sixth  commandment  seems 
to  have  had  good  foundation. *^6)  During  the  time  of  Advent  certain 
parts  of  the  liturgy  were  developed  into  the  Ten  Virgin  Plays.  From 
a  lesson  of  the  third  Sunday  in  Advent,  which  was  also  used  in  the 
Vigils  of  Christmas,  and  in  which  Isaiah,  Jeremiah,  Daniel,  David, 
Moses,  Habakkuk,  Simeon,  Zacharias,  Elizabeth,  John  the  Baptist, 
Vergil,  Nebuchadnezzar,  and  the  Sibyl  were  introduced  with  their 
prophecies,  the  Prophet  Play  was  developed. 

At  Christmas,  the  tropes  Quem  vidistis,  pastores,  dicite  and  Quem 
quaeritis  in  praesepe,  together  with  other  sections  of  the  services  of- 
fered the  outline  for  Plays  of  the  Nativity.  On  Dec  28,  the  Festival 
of  the  Innocents,  the  lower  clergy,  the  choir  boys,  and  the  school 
children  were  permitted  to  elect  a  boy  bishop,  who  then  was  led 
through  the  streets  to  the  church,  where  he  celebrated  Mass.  The 
liturgy  of  this  day  in  a  few  cases  also  offered  the  tags  for  a  Rachel 
Play,  which  was  later  combined  with  the  Magi  Play. 

The  Feast  of  Fools,  celebrated  by  the  subdeacons  on  Jan.  1,  was 
unsavory  from  the  first  and  rapidly  degenerated  into  a  burlesque  of 
the  Mass  which  was  altogether  blasphemous,  especially  where  the  re- 
citation of  the  "ox  and  ass"  prose  was  introduced.  The  Play  of  the 
Three  Kings  was  developed  from  the  liturgy  of  Epiphany,  and  offered 
a  welcome  chance  for  the  display  of  pomp.  As  the  Play  of  the  Star 
it  was  retained  in  many  places  on  the  Continent  for  centuries.  Much 
more  reprehensible  was  the  Feast  of  the  Ass  on  the  octave  of  Epi- 
phany. It  was  not  only  that  an  ass  bearing  a  virgin  was  led  into  the 
church,  but  also  that  blasphemous  hymns  and  sequences  were  per- 
mitted for  the  enjoyment  of  the  people,  a  fact  which  caused  the  sober 
and  serious  citizens  to  condemn  svich  practises  without  reserve. 

The  Great  Sabbath  having  been  regarded  as  the  day  of  commemo- 
ration of  Christ's  descent  into  hell  since  early  times,  its  last  service 
gave  occasion  for  a  Descent  Play,  with  a  procession  resembling  that 
of  Palm  Sunday  and  the  Tollite  portas  dialog  from  Psalm  24  at  the 
door.  This  play  later  became  the  prolog  to  the  more  elaborate  Resur- 
rection Play,  which  was  developed  from  the  Quem  quaeritis  trope  of 
Easter  day,  together  with  other  parts  of  the  liturgy. 

The  afternoon  service  of  Ascension  Day  was  used  for  a  dramatic 
representation  of  the  scene  spoken  of  in  the  Gospels,  a  carved  picture 
of  Christ  being  elevated  into  the  loft  above  the  triumphal  arch.   This 


416)  22,  508;   21a,  1439;   Daniel,  Cod€!B  Uturgicus,  II,  22. 


THE  CHURCH  YEAR  OF  THE  ORIENT.  361 

ceremony  was  followed  by  that  of  the  casting  out  of  Satan  from 
heaven,  also  that  of  the  bread  from  heaven  and  the  water  of  life.  The 
sending  of  the  Holy  Spirit  on  Pentecost  Day  was  symbolized  by  the 
liberating  of  a  dove,  or  by  throwing  down  burning  tinder  or  flower 
petals  from  above. 

As  noted  above,  many  of  these  customs  developed  into  such  seri- 
ous abuses  and  blasphemies  that  serious-minded  people,  both  from 
among  the  clergj-  and  the  laity,  protested  earnestly,  and  several  coun- 
cils felt  constrained  to  pass  resolutions  suppressing  them.  Fortu- 
nately, the  Reformation  acted  as  a  leaven  also  in  the  Roman  Church, 
and  the  blasphemous  practises  have,  for  the  most  part,  been  discon- 
tinued. But  in  remote  parts,  the  last  remnants  of  liturgical  plays 
and  usages  are  still  to  be  found,  and  many  forms  of  superstition  that 
may  be  traced  back  to  ceremonies  of  festival  days,  are  still  to  be 
found."7) 


CHAPTER  4. 
The  Church  Year  of  the  Orient. 


The  long  struggle  for  supremacy  between  Rome  and  Constanti- 
nople was  reflected  also  in  the  divergent  development  of  the  church 
calendar.  The  chief  festivals,  indeed,  are  celebrated  in  both  the 
Orient  and  the  Occident,  but  the  cultus  in  either  case  found  a  dif- 
ferent expression,  and  the  trend  of  the  East  was  much  stronger  toward 
symbolism  than  that  of  the  West.  The  love  of  the  Oriental  for  gor- 
geous display  manifested  itself  also  in  the  arrangement  of  the  ser- 
vices throughout  the  year.  And  just  as  every  Sunday  served  for  the 
full  dramatic  representation  of  the  entire  order  of  salvation,  begin- 
ning with  the  creation  of  the  world  and  closing  with  the  coming  of 
Christ  to  judgment,  so  the  festival  services  were  made  an  occasion  to 
symbolize  the  special  act  of  God  which  was  commemorated  on  each  day. 

The  Greek  Orthodox  Church  takes  the  leading  part  in  this  re- 
spect. The  more  the  preaching  of  the  Word  fell  into  disuse,  the  more 
the  dramatic  content  of  the  liturgj'  was  emphasized.  The  church 
year  is  commonly  represented  as  beginning  with  Easter,  which  is 
celebrated  with  extraordinary  displays  of  joy  and  splendor.  As  the 
midnight  bell  heralds  the  new  day,  a  remarkable  change  takes  place 
in  the  churches  and  in  the  congregations  assembled  in  them.  The 
church  is  still  filled  with  the  darkness  of  sorrow  and  mourning,  but 
when  the  procession  of  triumph,  headed  by  the  priests,  has  returned 
from  its  walk  aroiind  the  church,  the  interior  blazes  forth  with  a  great 


417)  Cp.  The  Liturgical  Element  in  tlve  Earliest  Forms  of  the  Medieval 
Drama,  Minneapolis.  1916;  Lehre  und  IVf/ire,  1917,  Nov.  ff. 


362  THE  CHURCH  YEAR  OF  THE  ORIENT. 

multitude  of  lights.  The  Easter  greeting  is  spoken  by  the  bishop, 
and  the  doors  of  the  altar  screen  are  opened,  revealing  the  high  altar 
and  all  the  furnishings  of  the  apse,  which  are  otherwise  hidden  from 
the  eyes  of  the  multitude.  For  the  entire  week  the  doors  remain 
open,  symbolizing  the  rending  of  the  temple  vail  at  Jerusalem.  The 
procession  continues  inside  the  church,  and  the  choirs  burst  out  in 
anthems  of  joyful  devotion.  A  feature  of  the  celebration  is  the  ring-, 
ing  of  the  church  bells  and  the  presenting  of  eggs  as  symbols  of  the 
resurrection.  The  celebration  of  Easter  extends  over  three  days  as 
festival  days  of  the  first  rank,  but  the  entire  octave  is  given  over  to 
special  services  of  praise  and  thanksgiving. 

The  octave  of  Easter  is  known  as  Thomas  Sunday,  having  lost 
the  old  distinction  of  names  which  referred  to  confirmation,  the  first 
communion,  and  the  white  baptismal  dresses.  Reference,  however,  is 
still  made  to  the  fact  that  the  day  was  formerly  celebrated  as  the 
Sunday  of  the  Apostles,  the  lesson  being  Matt.  28,  16 — 20  and  Acts  5, 
12 — 20.  The  following  week  is  known  as  that  of  the  Ointment- 
bearers,  since  the  Matin  lessons  tell  the  story  of  the  three  Maries  at 
the  sepulcher.  The  third  Simday  after  Easter  is  known  as  the  Sun- 
day of  the  Paralytic,  after  the  Gospel  of  the  Matins,  Luke  24,  1 — 9. 
The  Gospel  of  the  chief  service,  John  5,  1 — 15,  also  commemorates 
the  healing  of  a  sick  man.  The  fourth  Sunday  after  Easter  is  called 
the  Sunday  of  the  Samaritan  Woman,  after  the  Gospel  of  the  day, 
John  4,  5 — 42.  The  fifth  Sunday  after  Easter  is  the  Sunday  of  the 
Blind,  after  the  Gospel  of  the  day,  John  9,  1 — 38. 

The  celebration  of  the  Paschal  season  proper  closes  with  the 
thirty-ninth  day  after  Easter  (apodidotai  to  Pascha).  The  fortieth 
day  after  Easter,  as  in  the  Western  Church,  is  celebrated  as  Ascen- 
sion Day.  On  this  day  it  is  customary  to  hold  a  solemn  procession, 
which  in  Jerusalem  has  the  Mount  of  Olives  for  its  endpoint  and  in 
other  places  is  usually  undertaken  to  the  nearest  hill  or  mount.  The 
Sunday  after  this  festival  is  the  Sunday  of  the  Holy  Fathers,  in  com- 
memoration of  all  the  fathers  of  the  seven  Ecumenical  Councils.  The 
Saturday  of  this  week  is  the  Oriental  All  Souls'  Day,  with  processions 
to  the  cemeteries. 

The  festival  of  Pentecost  is  not  signalized  by  the  same  display  of 
pomp  and  splendor  as  Easter,  but  it  is  also  a  festival  of  the  first  rank, 
with  a  full  three  days'  celebration.  The  Sunday  of  All  Saints'  as  the 
octave  of  Pentecost  in  a  way  closes  the  celebration  of  the  Holy 
Ghost's  outpouring,  but  its  principal  significance  is  its  being  set  aside 
to  commemorate  all  saints  and  martyrs,  and  to  serve  as' an  introduc- 
tion to  the  season  without  great  festivals.  The  total  number  of  Sun- 
days in  this  long  period  till  the  beginning  of  Lent  is  thirty-five.    The 


THE  CHURCH  YEAR  OF  THE  ORIENT.  363 

one  extraordinary  festival  in  this  entire  season  is  the  Christmas  fes- 
tival, which  includes  the  three  days  beginning  with  Dec.  25.  Instead 
of  the  account  of  St.  Luke  (chap.  2),  that  of  St.  Matthew  describing 
the  coming  of  the  wise  men  from  the  East  is  used.  On  January  1 
occurs  the  Festival  of  the  Circumcision,  and  on  January  6  that  of 
Epiphany,  or  Theophany.  On  the  latter  day,  which  commemorates 
the  baptism  of  Jesus,  a  solemn  procession  is  formed  and  made  to  the 
nearest  river,  where,  after  the  proi>er  benediction,  the  baptism  in 
Jordan  is  celebrated. 

The  three  Sundays  immediately  preceding  Lent  again  have  spe- 
cial names,  the  first  of  them  being  known  as  the  Sunday  of  the 
Pharisee  and  the  Publican,  after  the  Gospel  lesson  Luke  18,  1 — 14, 
the  second  as  the  Sunday  of  the  Prodigal  Son,  the  Gospel  being 
Luke  15,  11 — 32,  and  the  third  as  the  Sunday  of  Christ's  Final  Ad- 
vent, with  the  Gospel  lesson  Matt.  25,  31 — i6.  The  week  of  this 
Sunday  is  the  Carnival  Week  of  the  Greek  Church,  and  the  use  of 
milk,  butter,  cheese,  and  eggs  is  permitted,  while  during  the  fast  of 
Lent  only  cheese  is  permitted.  The  first  Sunday  in  Lent  is,  on  this 
account,  known  as  the  Sxmday  of  Cheese.  The  second  Sunday  in 
Lent  is  called  the  Sunday  of  Orthodoxy,  with  reference  to  the  con- 
fession of  Nathanael  in  the  Gospel,  John  1,  43 — 51.  On  this  day  there 
occurs  the  solemn  procession  with  all  the  saints'  statues  and  icons, 
after  which  the  great  anathema  is  pronounced  upon  all  heretics  which 
were  excommunicated  by  the  seven  Ecumenical  Councils.  The  third 
Sunday  in  Lent  is  distinguished  only  by  the  first  readings  of  the 
Gospel  according  to  St.  Mark.  The  seventh  and  last  Sunday  in  Lent 
is  Palm  Sunday,  on  which  the  procession  of  palms  is  held.  Every 
day  in  Holy  Week  is  set  apart  for  chief  services.  On  Thursday,  the 
institution  of  the  Lord's  Supper  is  celebrated,  also  the  ceremony  of 
the  washing  of  feet,  but  principally  the  benediction  of  the  Holy 
Chrism  which  has  been  prepared  on  the  first  days  of  the  week.  The 
celebration  of  Good  Friday  is  distinguished  by  special  anthems,  but 
especially  by  the  reading  of  twelve  Gospel  lessons  concerning  the 
Passion,  taken  from  the  four  Gospels,  after  the  form  of  a  harmony. 
On  Good  Friday  as  well  as  on  the  Great  Sabbath  everything  in  and 
about  the  church  is  expressive  of  deep  repentance  and  mourning,  un- 
til once  more  the  midnight  bell  ushers  in  the  glad  day  of  Easter.^^*) 

This  complete  calendar,  as  here  briefly  sketched,  was  the  result 
of  a  gradual  development  for  centuries,  some  festivals  having  mean- 
while gained  in  prominence  and  others  lost.  Under  the  latter  Byzan- 
tine Empire,  the  festivals,  according  to  Kellner,  were  the  following: 
Christmas,  Epiphany,  Hypapante  (Presentation),  Easter,  Pentecost, 


418)  Alt,  Das  Kirchenjahr,  181—218. 


364  THE  GHUBCH  TEAR  OF  THE  ORIENT. 

— -Orthodox  Sunday  (1st  Sunday  in  Lent),  Palm  Sunday,  Holy 
Saturday,  Easter  Octave,  New  Year's  Day,  Sept.  1 ;  —  St.  Basil, 
Jan.  1;  St.  George,  April  23;  Constantine,  May  21;  Nativity  of  John 
the  Baptist,  June  24;  Feast  of  the  Ajwstles,  J\ine  30;  Transfigura- 
tion, Aug.  8;  Assumption  of  Mary,  Aug.  15;  Beheading  of  John  the 
Baptist,  Aug.  29;  Nativity  of  our  Lady,  Sept.  8;  Invention  of  the 
Cross,  Sept.  14;  Chrysostom,  Nov.  13;  Presentation  of  our  Lady  in 
the  Temple,  Nov.  21,  and  others.*^^) 

Neale  divides  the  festivals  of  the  Greek  calendar  according  to 
their  importance:  A.  Great  Festivals  —  1)  Easter;  2)  Christmas 
Day,  Epiphany,  Purification,  Annunciation,  Palm  Sunday,  Ascen- 
sion, Pentecost,  Transfiguration,  Repose  of  the  Mother  of  God,  Na- 
tivity of  the  Mother  of  God,  Exaltation  of  the  Holy  Cross,  Presen- 
tation of  the  Mother  of  God;  3)  Adodecata:  Circumcision,  Nativity 
of  John  the  Baptist,  SS.  Peter  and  Paul,  Decollation  of  John  the 
Baptist.  B.  Festivals  of  the  Second  Class  —  1)  With  additional  canon 
at  Lauds  in  honor  of  the  Mother  of  God:  SS.  Basil,  Gregory,  and 
Chrysostom,  Jan.  30;  St.  George,  April  23;  St.  John  the  Divine, 
May  6;  St.  John  Chrj^sostom,  Nov.  13;  St.  Sabbas,  Dec.  5;  St.  Nico- 
las of  Myra,  Dec.  6;  2)  Middle  Festivals  of  the  second  class:  days  of' 
apostles,  certain  great  doctors  or  wonder-workers,  etc.;  3)  Little  fes- 
tivals: a)  those  that  have  the  great  doxology,  b)  those  that  have 
not.420) 

The  Armenian  church  year,  as  might  be  expected,  shows  some 
similarity  to  that  of  the  Orthodox  Greek  Church,  but  its  whole  struc- 
ture points  to  a  greater  age  and  a  more  conservative  stand.  It  is  not 
only  more  primitive,  but  it  is  unusually  well-balanced  and  harmoni- 
ous, even  the  later  festivals  having  been  added  in  a  way  which  causes 
them  to  appear  as  parts  of  a  consistent  whole.  The  calendar  of  the 
Armenians  is  divided  into  sections  in  accordance  with  the  great  fes- 
tivals: 1)  from  Easter  to  Pentecost,  2)  from  Pentecost  to  the  Festival 
of  the  Transfiguration,  3)  from  Transfiguration  to  the  Assumption 
of  Mary,  4)  from  Assumption  of  Mary  to  Elevation  of  the  Cross, 
5)  from  Elevation  of  the  Cross  to  the  Pentecostal  season  preceding 
Epiphany,  6)  the  season  of  fasting  before  Epiphany,  7)  from  Epiphany 
to  Lent,  8)  Lent  to  the  Great  Sabtath.  A  feature  of  the  spring  sea- 
son are  the  processions  for  the  benediction  of  the  fields,  which  take 
place  on  the  seven  Sundays  after  Easter,  on  Ascension  Day,  and  on 
the  Saturday  before  Pentecost,  as  well  as  on  Pentecost  itself.  There 
are  also  other  processions,  as  on  Easter  and  Pentecost  for  the  bene- 
diction of  the  graves,  on  Transfiguration  to  the  nearest  mountain  or 
hill  instead  of  Tabor,  on  Assumption  of  Mary  both  in  the  morning 


419)  Heortnlofni.  28.  420)  Essays  on  Liturgiologit,  IV. 


THE  CHURCH  YEAR  OF  THE  ORIENT.  365 

and  in  the  afternoon,  the  latter  for  the  benediction  of  the  fields. 
A  number  of  festivals  are  either  peculiar  to  the  Armenians  or  have 
assumed  special  characteristics.  Among  these  are  the  following: 
Commemoration  of  the  prophet  Jeremiah,  on  the  Saturday  after 
Pentecost,  Gregorius  Illuminator  on  the  following  Saturday,  Festival 
of  the  Relics  of  Gregorius  Illuminator  two  weeks  later,  Festival  of 
the  Two  Hundred  Fathers  of  the  Council  of  Ephesus,  Festival  of  the 
Three  Hundred  and  Eighteen  Fathers  of  the  Council  of  Nicea,  Fes- 
tival of  the  Seventy  Disciples  of  Christ,  and  others.  The  Sundays  in 
Lent  have  the  same  names  as  those  in  the  Roman  Catholic  calen- 
dar.421) 

The  Nestorians  have  their  church  year  divided  into  six  sections : 
I.  The  twelve  weeks  from  New  Year  till  Christmas  (four  weeks  of 
Moses,  four  weeks  of  dedication  —  from  the  tabernacle  of  Moses  to 
the  temple  of  Serubbabel  — ,  four  weeks  of  annunciation) ;  II.  From 
the  Nativity  of  Christ  to  Epiphany,  with  a  period  of  fasting  of 
twenty-five  days;  III.  From  Epiphany  to  Lent  (nine  weeks  devoted 
to  the  ministry  of  Christ) ;  IV.  The  period  of  fasting  before  Easter 
(ending  with  Holy  Week  and  the  Great  Sabbath) ;  V.  From  Easter 
to  Pentecost  (during  which  Friday  after  Easter  the  "Friday  of  Con- 
fessors") ;  VI.  From  Pentecost  to  the  Festival  of  the  Cross  (including 
six  Sundays  devoted  to  the  commemoration  of  the  apostles,  and  the 
last  three  to  a  preparation  for  the  Elevation  of  the  Cross).  The  Fes- 
tival of  Transfiguration  is  an  important  festival  in  the  Nestorian 
calendar.^22) 

The  Coptic  and  Abyssinian  church  year  has  not  been  changed 
much  since  the  tenth  century.  In  the  8th  century,  the  following  fes- 
tivals were  observed :  Annunciation  (March  25) ;  Olivarum  sive  fes- 
tum  palmarum;  Pascha;  Festum  ascensionis;  Pentecoste;  Nativitas 
Domini ;  Immersio  i.  e.  baptismus  Domini  (Epiphany)  ;  —  lesser 
festivals:  Circumcisio  Domini;  Candlemas;  Maundy  Thursday;  Holy 
Saturday;  Low  Sunday;  Festum  transfigurationis  (Aug.  6);  Festum 
crucis  (Sept.  14).  Of  these  festivals,  that  of  Epiphany  is  the  most 
characteristic,  being  celebrated  in  a  strictly  Monophysitic  manner.*23) 


421)   Alt,  225—280.  422)   Alt,  286—290. 

423)  Kellner,  Heortoloyy,  Part  I;  Alt,  291—296. 


366  THE  REFORMED  CHURCH  YEAR. 

CHAPTER  5. 
The  Reformed  Church  Year. 

There  are  several  factors  which  separate  the  calendar  of  the  Re- 
formed churches  from  that  of  the  Catholic  Church  on  the  one  hand 
and  the  Lutheran  Church  on  the  other.  One  of  these  is  the  legalistic 
imprint  which  characterizes  the  Protestant  churches  that  had  their 
origin  in  Switzerland  and  in  England  and  Scotland,  although  the 
Reformed  Church  of  Germany  is  not  far  behind  in  this  respect.  The 
other  factor  is  this  that,  with  the  exception  of  the  Anglican  (and  the 
Protestant  Episcopal  Church)  all  Protestant  denominations  of  this 
class  have  abrogated  the  old  church  year,  either  entirely  or  in  its 
chief  parts. 

The  legalistic  phase  of  the  question  is  especially  strongly  marked 
with  reference  to  the  discussion  of  Sunday  or  Sabbath.  The  idea 
that  the  Old  Testament  Sabbath  is  continued  in  the  New  Testament 
Sunday  is  very  strongly  developed  among  many  of  these  denomina- 
tions. The  Presbyterians,  the  Congregationalists,  the  Baptists,  the 
Free- Will  Baptists,  the  Mennonites,  the  Methodists,  the  Evangelical 
Adventists,  and  others  claim  full  validity  for  the  ceremonial  law,  so 
far  as  the  keeping  of  a  certain  day  in  the  week  is  concemed.^24)  j^ 
England  a  law  given  in  1562  prohibited  all  marketing,  buying,  and 
selling  on  the  Lord's  Day,  all  labor  being  forbidden  that  was  usually 
performed  on  the  week  days.  The  Puritans  became  the  strongest 
advocates  of  the  movement  to  enforce  the  provisions  of  the  Old  Tes- 
tament Sabbath,  both  in  England,  so  far  as  their  influence  extended, 
and  later  in  America.  The  duties  of  piety  and  religion,  both  publicly 
and  privately,  were  enjoined.  No  tradesman,  artificer,  workman,  la- 
borer, shoe-maker,  butcher,  baker  was  allowed  to  ply  his  trade.  The 
ban  was  placed  even  upon  the  showing  forth  and  exposing  to  sale  of 
wares,  merchandise,  fruit,  herbs,  etc.  The  purpose  of  all  these  mea- 
sures was  to  "keep  the  divine  institution  from  being  polluted."  In 
Scotland  the  Sabbath  laws  were  insisted  upon  and  enforced  with  ap- 
propriate punishments  to  such  an  extent  that  the  Sunday  was  given 
over  entirely  and  alone  to  the  hearing  and  reading  of  the  Bible,  all 
other  activities  being  omitted  absolutely.  In  the  Puritan  days  of 
New  England  the  same  state  of  affairs  obtained.  In  the  early  days, 
the  colonies  were  practically  church  states,  and  the  ceremonial  law  of 
Moses  was  observed  as  strictly  as  the  civil  law,  in  fact  the  latter  were 
based  upon  the  former.  And  to  this  day,  this  conception  of  Sunday, 
as  found  in  the  ancient  Blue  Laws,  crops  up  in  the  legislation  of 
many  states,  cities,  and  towns,  not  on  the  basis  of  a  natural  law 


424)  Guenther,  Symholik,  289—291. 


THE  REFORMED  CHURCH  YEAR.  367 

which  demands  a  day  of  rest,  but  on  the  basis  of  the  Old  Testament 
commandment. 

The  Reformed  church  which  adhered  most  closely  to  the  ancient 
church  calendar  was  the  Anglican  Church.  As  the  founders  of  this 
church  were  conservative  in  the  selection  of  their  liturgy,  so  they 
were  also  conservative  in  the  retention  of  established  festivals.  In 
1559,  the  Anglican  Church  celebrated  the  following  festivals:  Cir- 
cumcision, Epiphany,  Conversion  of  St.  Paul,  Purification  of  the 
Blessed  Virgin  Mary,  St.  Matthias,  Annunciation,  St.  Mark,  Philip 
and  James,  John  Baptist,  Peter,  James,  Bartholomew,  Matthew, 
Michael,  Luke,  Simon  and  Jude,  All  Saints',  St.  Andrew,  St.  Thomas, 
Christmas,  St.  Stephen,  John  the  Evangelist,  Innocents,  Mary  Mag- 
dalen (1549),  Clement  (1552),  Barnabas  (1549,  1559),  George,  Law- 
rence, Lammas  (1552  and  1559).  Easter  was  celebrated  as  a  matter 
of  course.425)  I'jje  influence  of  the  Puritans  and  of  the  Presbyterians 
in  the  16th  and  17th  century  was  not  without  its  effect  upon  the 
Anglican  calendar,  but  the  result  has  been  chiefly  salutary,  by  weed- 
ing out  many  festival  days  whose  celebration  savored  strongly  of 
Romanism.  The  church  year  of  the  Church  of  England,  as  recognized 
also  in  the  Scotch,  Irish,  and  American  branches,  has  the  following 
order:  1)  Advent,  with  four  Sundays  and  the  days  of  the  apostles, 
Andrew,  on  Nov.  30,  Thomas,  on  Dec.  21;  2)  The  Christmas  season, 
with  Christmas,  St.  Stephen,  St.  John  the  Evangelist,  Innocents, 
Sunday  after  Christmas,  and  the  Circumcision;  3)  The  Epiphany 
season  with  its  six  possible  Sundays,  and  Conversion  of  St.  Paul  on 
Jan.  25,  Purification  on  Feb.  2,  St.  Matthias  on  Feb.  24;  4)  The  sea- 
son of  preparation  and  Lent,  with  Septuagesima,  Sexagesima,  Quin- 
quagesima,  and  the  five  Sundays  in  Lent;  5)  Palm  Sunday  and  the 
Holy  Week,  during  which  Monday,  Tuesday,  Wednesday,  and  Thursday 
before  Easter,  Good  Friday,  and  Easter  Even  are  commemorated; 
6)  Easter  Day  and  Easter  Monday  and  Tuesday,  also  Annixnciation 
on  March  25,  and  St.  Mark  on  April  25;  7)  The  five  Sundays  after 
Easter,  Ascension,  Whit-Simday  with  its  Monday  and  Tuesday, 
Trinity,  with  special  days  at  some  time  during  that  season:  SS.  Phi- 
lip and  James  on  May  1,  St.  Barnabas  on  June  11;  8)  The  twenty- 
five  Sundays  after  Trinity.  The  following  festivals  are  included  in 
this  period:  St.  John  Baptist  on  June  24,  St.  Peter  on  June  29, 
St.  James  on  July  25,  St.  Bartholomew  on  Aug.  24,  St.  Matthew  on 
Sept.  21,  St.  Michael  and  All  Angels  on  Sept.  29,  St.  Luke  on  Oct.  18, 
SS.  Simon  and  Jude  on  Oct.  28,  All  Saints'  on  Nov.  1*^) 

So  far  as  the  other  Reformed  denominations  are  concerned,  a 


425)  Blunt,  Annotated  Book  of  Common  Prayer,  Part  I. 

426)  Alt,  Das  Kirchenjahr,  459. 


368  THE  EEFORMED  CHUECH  YEAB. 

distinction  must  be  made  between  those  that  were  influenced  from 
Zurich  and  Basle  and  those  that  were  influenced  from  Geneva. 
Zwingli  placed  the  chief  emphasis  upon  the  celebration  of  Sunday,  a 
feature  which  has  not  been  abandoned  since.  He  was  not  in  favor  of 
many  other  holidays,  retaining  only  the  Nativity  of  Christ,  Easter, 
Ascension,  and  Pentecost.  The  Church  Order  of  Ulm  was  even  more 
radical,  designating  Sunday  as  the  only  day  to  be  celebrated  and 
merely  permitting  a  commemoration  of  the  Lord,  the  apostles,  and 
the  martyrs,  on  the  days  formerly  devoted  to  their  celebration.  The 
Hessian  Church  Order  of  1526  is  almost  as  exclusive,  allowing  only 
Sunday  for  celebration  in  the  proper  sense  of  the  word,  but  desig- 
nating Christmas,  Circumcision,  Epiphany,  Presentation  of  Christ, 
Annunciation,  Good  Friday,  Easter  Day,  Ascension,  Whitsunday, 
Visitation  of  Mary  as  commemorative  days.  Of  apostles  and  mar- 
tyrs, only  John  the  Baptist  and  St.  Stephen  are  mentioned.  By  1566 
it  seemed  to  become  evident  that  such  an  extreme  and  radical  position 
was  not  to  be  recommended,  for  the  same  Church  Order  names  the 
following  festivals:  Christmas  with  the  second  day.  Circumcision, 
Epiphany,  Purification,  Annunciation,  Easter  with  the  second  day. 
Ascension,  Pentecost  with  the  second  day,  John  the  Baptist,  and 
Visitation.  On  the  days  of  the  apostles,  Mary  Magdalen,  Michael, 
Conversion  of  St.  Paul,  Maundy  Thursday,  Good  Friday,  and  on  the 
third  festival  day  of  the  great  Christ  feasts,  there  should  be  early 
morning  service  only.  But  the  monthly  day  of  prayer  and  penitence 
was  very  strongly  recommended. 

In  Switzerland  and  Germany  the  final  result  of  agitation  from 
various  sides  has  yielded  the  following:  1)  Christmas  Eve  and 
Christmas,  two  days,  2)  New  Year's  Eve  and  New  Year,  3)  Palm 
Sunday,  Great  Thursday,  and  Good  Friday,  4)  Easter,  two  days, 
5)  Ascension,  6)  Pentecost,  two  days,  Y)  Trinity.  The  division  of 
the  church  year  into  periods,  such  as  Advent,  Epipharfy  season,  Len- 
ten season,  Easter  season,  Pentecost  season,  is  observed  at  least  in 
the  prayers  recommended  for  the  several  Sundays. 

The  denominations  which  were  influenced  by  Calvin  were  even 
more  radical  in  rejecting  the  festivals  which  were  traditional  in  the 
Church.  Calvin  acknowledged  only  the  Sunday  as  a  holiday,  to  be 
kept  with  extraordinary  solemnity.  He  also  had  daily  service  with 
preaching  in  the  large  churches,  and  the  same  on  Monday,  Wednesday, 
and  Friday,  or  at  least  on  Wednesday  in  the  smaller  churches.  These 
views  became  authoritative  in  the  French  Reformed  Church,  as  well 
as  for  the  Puritans  and  Presbyterians  of  England  and  Scotland,  and 
later,  of  America.  They  also  influenced  the  Baptists,  the  Methodists, 
the  Congregationalists,  the  Campbellites,  and  the  many  Protestant 


THE  LUTHERAN  CHURCH  YEAR.  369 

denominations  that  have  sprung  up  in  the  last  few  centuries.  With 
all  of  them,  the  Sunday  is  the  one  recognized  holiday  which  is  held 
with  all  solemnity.  In  some  of  these  churches,  a  monthly  or  yearly 
watch-night  is  held  and  the  midweek  prayer  meeting  is,  with  many, 
an  established  institution.  There  are  also  regular  missionary  meet- 
ings, and  the  Methodists  celebrate  the  first  Sunday  in  every  new  year 
for  the  Renewal  of  Covenant. 

But  the  influence  of  environment  cannot  be  denied,  and  the  in- 
stinctive liking  for  festival  celebrations  cannot  be  entirely  suppressed. 
Accordingly,  both  Christmas  and  Easter  are  celebrated  in  most  of  the 
Reformed  denominations  of  this  country.  Lent  is  also  being  regarded 
more  and  more  as  a  season  of  preparation,  the  practise  of  noon-day 
services  by  no  means  being  restricted  to  the  Lutherans.  Holy  Week 
is  solemnized  by  special  services  and  by  references  to  the  events  be- 
tween Palm  Sunday  and  Easter.  And  this  practise  is  to  be  com- 
mended most  heartily,  being  far  preferable  to  the  habit  of  dedicating 
the  several  Sundays,  not  only  to  all  manner  of  causes,  but  also  to  all 
manner  of  fads.  Rally  Day  and  Mothers'  Day  were  well  enough,  but 
to  go  to  the  extreme  which  has  been  reached  in  some  quarters  at  the 
present  time  and  make  the  church  platform  a  forum  for  the  rehashing 
of  the  previous  week's  editorials  and  the  discussion  of  every  question 
under  the  sun  but  that  of  the  redemption  through  Christ  augurs  ill 
for  the  Church  of  the  future.  A  more  stable  church  calendar  may 
do  much  to  stem  the  tide  which  threatens  to  carry  all  before  it. 


CHAPTER  6. 
The  Lutheran  Church  Year. 


When  Luther  undertook  the  great  work  of  liberating  the  Church 
from  errors  of  doctrine  and  life,  he  was  actuated  only  by  true  zeal 
for  the  honor  of  Christ.  He  was  never  unmindful  of  the  history  of 
the  Church  nor  of  the  obligations  which  historical  associations  laid 
upon  the  Christians  of  this  latter  day.  And  for  that  reason  he  did 
not  become  guilty  of  iconoclasm,  also  with  reference  to  the  church 
year  and  its  festivals.  The  ancient  festivals  in  honor  of  Christ  and 
the  Triune  God  he  retained  as  a  matter  of  course.  And  as  for  the 
other  festivals,  he  was  careful  to  keep  all  such  as  had  any  value  for 
the  devotion  and  edification  of  the  Christian  congregation,  while  he 
carefully  expunged  all  parts  or  references  which  savored  of  Romish 
idolatry.  In  his  "Order  of  Divine  Services  in  the  Congregation"  of 
1523  he  writes:  "All  festivals  of  saints  ought  to  be  omitted,  or,  if 
there  were  a  good  Christian  legend,  be  introduced  on  the  Sunday 
[nearest]  after  the  Gospel  as  an  example.    But  the  festival  Purifica- 

Kretzmann,  ChrisUan  Art.  24 


370  THE  LUTHERAN  CHURCH  YEAR. 

tion  and  Annunciation  of  Mary  I  should  retain ;  Assumption  of  Mary 
into  Heaven,  commonly  called  Ascension  of  Mary  by  the  people,  and 
Nativity  of  Mary  one  must  keep  for  a  while,  although  the  liturgy  is 
not  pure.  The  Festival  of  John  Baptist  is  also  pure.  Of  the  legends 
of  the  apostles  none  is  pure  but  that  of  St.  Paul,  therefore  they  may 
be  used  on  the  Sundays,  or,  if  desired,  be  celebrated  separately."  *^) 
He  makes  a  similar  distinction  in  the  Formula  Missae  of  1523 :  "But 
we  of  Wittenberg  intend  to  celebrate  only  on  the  Sundays  and  on  the 
festivals  of  our  Lord  Jesus  Christ,  for  we  believe  that  the  festivals  of 
the  saints  should  all  be  discontinued,  or  if  there  be  anything  worthy 
of  speaking  in  them,  it  may  be  included  on  the  Sundays  in  the  ser- 
mon. The  festivals  of  Purification  and  Annunciation  we  consider 
Christ  festivals,  just  as  we  do  Epiphany  and  Circumcision.  Instead 
of  the  festivals  of  St.  Stephen  and  St.  John  the  Evangelist  it  pleases 
us  to  make  use  of  the  office  of  Christmas.  The  festivals  of  the  Holy 
Cross  should  be  condemned.  Others  may  follow  their  own  conscience 
or  the  weakness  of  other  people,  as  each  one's  spirit  will  suggest  and 
counsel."  ^^s)  In  the  same  strain  Luther  writes  three  years  later,  in 
his  "German  Mass  and  Order  of  Services"  of  1526:  "But  with  the 
festivals,  as  Christmas,  Easter,  Pentecost,  Michaelis,  Purification, 
and  the  others,  we  must  continue  as  heretofore,  Latin,  until  there  are 
enough  German  hymns  for  them.  .  .  .  Lent,  Palm  Sunday,  and  Holy 
Week  we  retain;  not  as  though  we  compel  any  one  to  fast,  but  that 
the  reading  of  the  passion  story  and  the  Gospels,  which  were  fixed  for 
this  time,  be  retained.  .  .  Holy  Week  shall  be  like  other  weeks,  only 
that  the  passion  story  be  preached  an  hour  every  day  through  the 
week,  or  as  many  days  as  it  pleases,  and  he  who  wishes  may  receive 
the  Sacrament.  For  everything  should  be  done  for  the  sake  of  the 
Word  and  the  Sacrament  in  the  service."  ^29) 

Luther  discusses  the  question  also  in  other  passages  of  his  writ- 
ings. In  his  Sermon  on  the  Second  Article  he  mentions  Christmas, 
Holy  Week,  Easter,  Ascension,  and  Pentecost.^^^)  In  another  case, 
he  speaks  of  the  keeping  of  Vigils.^^^)  In  his  Exposition  of  the  Epistle 
to  the  Galatians,  4,  10,  he  refers  to  Wednesday  and  Friday  as  days  of 
commemoration,  and  to  Easter,  Pentecost,  and  the  days  of  the  mar- 
tyrs. But  the  passage  which  is  of  the  greatest  interest  in  this  connec- 
tion is  that  of  the  Instruction  of  the  Visitors  to  the  Pastors  in  the 
Electorate  of  Saxony,  of  1528,  since  so  many  of  the  German  Church 
Orders  were  based  upon  these  instructions.  The  passage  reads: 
"Therefore  the  festivals,  as  Sundays  and  others,  as  is  the  custom  of 
each  pastor,  should  be  observed.    For  the  people  must  have  some  cer- 


427)   10,  225,  No.  15.  428)   10,  2238,  §  11;   Daniel,  II,  83. 

429)   10,  257,  ^§§  50.  51.  430)   10,  1107.  431)   3,  1208. 


THE  LUTHEBAN  CHURCH  TEAB.  371 

tain  times  that  they  may  come  together  to  hear  God's  Word.  The 
pastors  also  should  not  become  guilty  of  altercation,  in  case  one  cele- 
brates a  holyday  and  the  other  does  not,  ....  nevertheless  they  shall 
not  abrogate  all  holydays.  It  would  be  well  if  they  all,  with  one 
accord,  would  celebrate  the  Sundays,  Annunciation,  Purification, 
Visitation  of  the  Pure  Virgin  Mary,  St.  John  the  Baptist,  Michaelis, 
the  festivals  of  the  apostles,  that  of  Mary  Magdalene;  unless  those 
festivals  have  already  been  discontinued  and  could  not  well  be  re- 
introduced. But  above  all,  Christmas,  Circumcision,  Epiphany,  Eas- 
ter, Ascension,  Pentecost  shall  be  held,  but  with  the  omission  of  un- 
christian legends  or  hymns,  since  these  festivals  are  thus  ordered. 
For  it  is  impossible  to  teach  all  parts  of  the  Gospel  at  once,  for  which 
reason  the  doctrine  has  been  divided  into  the  church  year.  ...  In  the 
week  before  Easter  the  usual  celebration  shall  be  observed  that  the 
passion  story  may  be  preached,  and  it  is  not  necessary  that  this  old 
custom  and  order  be  changed."  *^^) 

Luther  himself  followed  the  principles  here  enunciated  by  him, 
as  we  see  from  his  postils  and  other  writings.  Of  the  season  of  Ad- 
vent and  its  ceremonies  he  judged  that  "they  were  instituted  and 
ordered  in  the  very  best  manner  and  in  good  Christian  intention,  to 
thank  God  for  the  fact  that  His  dear  Son  became  man."  Christmas 
he  called  "the  beautiful,  pleasant  festival  of  the  holy  birth  of  our 
Lord  Jesus  Christ."  Of  the  two  festivals  immediately  after  Christ- 
mas he  at  first  spoke  harshly:  "The  preacher  should  discontinue  the 
stories  of  St.  Stephen  and  St.  John  as  not  pertaining  to  this  festival 
[Christmas],  and  preach  only  of  the  birth  of  the  Savior";  but  later 
he  himself  preached  a  sermon  on  the  martyrdom  of  St.  Stephen  and 
called  the  narrative  "a  very  fine  history."  New  Year's  Day  he  wanted 
to  have  observed  only  as  the  Festival  of  the  Circumcision,  and  said 
of  it:  "The  Festival  of  the  Circumcision  is  a  very  comforting  fes- 
tival." On  the  Festival  of  Epiphany  Luther  would  have  preferred 
the  commemoration  of  the  baptism  of  Christ:  "This  festival  should 
really  have  its  principal  name  from  the  baptism  of  Christ  and  this 
preaching  of  the  holy  baptism  especially  be  done  on  it."  It  was  not 
altogether  clear  to  him  which  feature  should  be  emphasized  more 
strongly.  "On  this  festival  there  is  much  to  preach,  namely  the  his- 
tory of  the  wise  men,  also  of  the  baptism  of  Christ,  also  of  the  first 
miracle  which  Jesus  performed  at  Cana  of  Galilee."  Later  the  peri- 
coixis  were  so  arranged  as  to  give  due  attention  to  each  of  these 
stories.  Of  Palm  Sunday  Luther  writes:  "The  Palm  Sunday  should 
be  observed  with  the  procession  and  the  liturgy  as  of  old,  but  the 
benediction  of  the  palms  should  be  omitted."    For  Maimdy  Thursday 


432)   10,  1663.  1664. 


372  THE  LUTHERAN  CHURCH  TEAR. 

and  Good  Friday  we  have  sermons  by  Luther,  as  also  for  the  "solemn, 
joyous  Easter  festival."  Of  Rogation  "Week  he  writes:  "They  who 
first  instituted  it  may  have  meant  well,  but  is  has  turned  out  poorly." 
For  this  reason  he  opposed  its  celebration.  For  Ascension  Day  Luther 
has  a  sermon  in  one  of  his  postils,  and  in  regard  to  Pentecost  he  de- 
clares :  "On  this  holy  and  joyous  festival  of  Pentecost  we  commemo- 
rate and  thank  our  dear  God  for  the  great,  endless  blessing  which  He 
has  done  on  earth  in  this  that  He  has  revealed  to  us  poor  men  dovm 
from  heaven  His  dear  holy  Word."  On  Trinity  Sunday  he  preached : 
"The  present  festival  is  instituted  for  this  reason,  that  we  learn  as 
much  as  possible  from  the  Word  of  God,  what  God  is  in  Himself." 

In  regard  to  the  minor  festivals  we  also  have  remarks  of  Luther. 
His  opinion  of  the  Corpus  Christi  Festival  is  especially  unfavorable: 
"Therefore  I  have  never  been  more  opposed  to  any  festival  than  to 
this  one,  because  the  pope  used  Scriptures  wrongly  for  it.  .  .  .  On  no 
other  day  is  God  and  His  Christ  blasphemed  more  gravely  than  on 
this  day,  and  especially  with  the  procession,  which  should  be  abro- 
gated above  all  things."  Of  the  Dedication  Festivals  or  Kirmessen, 
as  they  were  then  in  use,  Luther  says :  "The  Kirchweihen  should  be 
altogether  discontinued,  since  they  are  nothing  but  regular  taverns, 
markets,  and  gambling  dens,  for  the  furthering  of  God's  dishonor  and 
the  damnation  of  souls."  The  Feast  of  the  Annunciation  he  wanted 
to  have  regarded  as  a  festival  of  the  Savior,  "which  should  by  prefer- 
ence be  called  the  Festival  of  the  Conception  or  Licamation  of 
Christ."  He  says  of  it:  "This  festival  is  observed  on  account  of  the 
article  in  the  Creed,  when  we  say :  I  believe  in  Jesus  Christ.  .  .  .  bom 
of  the  virgin  Mary."  Li  the  same  way,  Luther  regarded  the  Festival 
of  Purification  as  a  feast  of  the  Lord:  "We  observe  this  day  as  a 
festival  of  our  Lord  Jesus  Christ,  who  revealed  Himself  on  this  day, 
when  He  was  carried  into  the  temple  at  Jerusalem  and  there  pre- 
sented to  the  Lord."  The  Roman  leaven  in  the  Festival  of  the  Visi- 
tation Luther  excluded,  asserting  that  the  conception  of  Christ,  the 
Son  of  God,  and  the  Magnificat  are  proper  subjects  for  consideration 
on  this  day.  The  Festival  of  the  Assumption  was  ruled  out  sum- 
marily, having  basis  neither  in  Scriptures  nor  in  reasonable  prob- 
ability. He  says  of  it:  "The  Festival  of  the  Assumption  of  Mary  is 
thoroughly  papistical,  that  is,  full  of  idolatry,  and  instituted  without 
Scriptural  grounds."  The  Festival  of  John  the  Baptist  Luther  re- 
tained. Michaelis  was  also  regarded  very  highly  by  him,  and  he 
called  it  "the  festival  of  all  holy  and  chaste  angels."  It  was  a  matter 
of  course  with  him  to  remove  all  superstition.  For  the  feasts  of 
saints  and  martyrs  Luther  showed  little  interest.  He  says  of  the 
festivals  All  Saints'  and  All  Souls' :    "I  wish  that  these  two  festivals 


THE  LUTHERAN  CHURCH  YEAR.  373 

would  be  abrogated  in  all  coxintries,  on  account  of  the  abuse  which 
takes  place  on  them."  In  regard  to  the  legend  of  St.  Barbara  Luther 
uses  very  emphatic  language:  "The  legend  of  St.  Barbara  we  will 
omit  ...  it  is  all  a  mass  of  lies."  ^^3) 

Luther  himself  has  sermons,  in  his  postils,  not  only  for  the  great 
festivals,  Christmas,  Epiphany,  Easter,  Ascension,  Pentecost,  but  also 
for  the  following  minor  festivals,  many  of  which  he  preferred  to  have 
discontinued,  using,  incidentally.  Scripture  passages  for  the  basis  of 
his  discourse  instead  of  legendary  material :  St.  Andrew,  St.  Barbara, 
St.  Nicholas,  Conception  of  Mary,  St.  Thomas,  St.  Stephen,  St.  John 
the  Evangelist,  Circumcision,  Conversion  of  St.  Paul,  Purification  or 
Presentation  of  Christ,  St.  Matthias,  Annunciation,  SS.  Philip  and 
James,  Invention  of  the  Cross,  Corpus  Christi,  John  the  Baptist, 
SS.  Peter  and  Paul,  Visitation  of  Mary,  St.  Margaret,  Mary  Magda- 
lene, St.  James  the  Elder,  Feast  of  St.  Anne,  St.  Lawrence,  Assump- 
tion of  Mary,  St.  Bartholomew,  Decollation  of  John  Baptist,  Birth 
of  Mary,  St.  Matthew,  Michaelis,  SS.  Simon  and  Jude,  All  Saints', 
St.  Martin,  St.  Catharine,  and  others.''^^)  Whenever  Luther  held  a 
sermon  on  a  festival  day  whose  abrogation  he  favored,  he  gave  his 
reasons  for  rejecting  the  legend  and  used  the  pericope  of  the  Gospel 
lesson  prescribed  for  that  day  as  his  text. 

Thus  Luther  worked  in  a  fine,  conservative,  tactful  way  in  eradi- 
cating the  evils  which  had  crept  into  the  Church  with  the  multi- 
plicity of  the  festivals.  And  the  sound  principles  which  he  thus  ad- 
vocated were  accepted  by  the  Lutheran  Church  and  incorporated  in 
its  confessions.  "It  pleases  us  well  that  universal  ceremonies  be  kept 
for  the  sake  of  uniformity  and  good  order,  as  we  also  in  our  churches 
observe  the  Mass,  the  celebration  of  Siinday,  and  the  other  great  fes- 
tivals." *^)  "The  most  ancient  institutions  of  the  Church,  as  the 
three  great  .festivals,  etc.,  the  celebration  of  Sunday,  which  were  in- 
vented for  the  sake  of  good  order,  uniformity,  and  peace,  etc.,  we  ob- 
serve gladly."  *^^)  Thus  the  Lutheran  Church  "tried  the  traditional 
church  year  by  the  canon  of  Holy  Scripture,  rejected  all  the  pseudo- 
festivals,  declared  against  any  mere  outward  fasts,  and  disburdened 
herself  of  the  great  mass  of  saints'  days.  Thus  only  the  great  festi- 
vals, with  those  days  of  Mary  which  are  founded  on  Scripture,  re- 
mained; and  of  the  memorial  days,  the  day  of  John  the  Baptist  and 
the  apostles'  days  without  the  legends,  the  days  of  SS.  Stephen  and 
Lawrence  as  commemorative  of  the  martyrs  of  the  Church,  and  the 
day  of  the  archangel  Michael  as  a  representative  of  the  triumphant 


433)  Cp.  Daniel,  Codejr  Htutfficus,  II,  15—65;  Luther,  12  i^nd  13. 

434)  11,  1908—2414. 

435)  Apologia  Conf.  Art,  de  Ecclesia.  Mueller,  159,  §§  33.  34. 

436)  Apologia.  Art.  de  Traditioriibus  Humanis.  Mueller,  212,  $  38. 


374  THE  LUTHERAN  CHURCH  YEAR. 

Church.  .  .  .  Some  Kirchenordnungen  retain  also  the  day  of  Mary 
Magdalen.  .  .  .   Eeformation  Day  was  added  very  early."  *37) 

This  calendar,  as  thus  outlined,  is  used  in  the  Lutheran  Church 
to  the  present  day,  with  local  variations,  in  a  true  evangelical  spirit. 
Loehe  names  the  following  festivals  and  holydays:  A.  Movable  Fes- 
tivals. Septuagesima,  Sexagesima,  Quinquagesima  or  Esto  Mihi, 
Ash  Wednesday,  Invocavit,  Reminiscere,  Oculi,  Laetare,  Judica, 
Palmarum,  Dies  Viridium  or  Maundy  Thursday,  Dies  Parasceves  or 
Good  Friday,  Easter,  Quasimodogeniti,  Misericordias  Domini,  Jubi- 
late, Cantate,  Rogate,  Ascension,  Exaudi,  Pentecost  or  Whitsunday, 
Trinity;  B.  Fixed  Festivals.  Circumcision,  Jan.  1;  Epiphany,  Jan. 
6 ;  Conversion  of  St.  Paul,  Jan.  25 ;  Purification,  Feb.  2 ;  St.  Matthias, 
Feb.  24;  Annunciation,  March  25;  SS.  Philip  and  James,  May  1; 
Birth  of  John  the  Baptist,  June  24;  SS.  Peter  and  Paul,  June  29; 
Visitation  of  Mary,  July  2;  Mary  Magdalene,  July  22;  St.  James  the 
Elder,  July  25;  St.  Lawrence,  Aug.  10;  St.  Bartholomew,  Aug.  24; 
St.  Matthew,  Sept.  21;  Michaelis,  Sept.  29;  SS.  Simon  and  Jude, 
Oct.  28;  All  Saints',  Nov.  1;  St.  Andrew,  Nov.  30;  St.  Thomas,  Dec. 
21;  Christmas,  Dec.  25;  St.  Stephen,  Dec.  26;  St.  John  the  Evange- 
list, Dec.  27;  Innocents'  Day,  Dec.  28.438) 

In  the  American  Lutheran  Church,  all  the  chief  festivals  are  ob- 
served very  generally,  and  the  second  festival  day  is  still  recognized. 
Many  of  the  minor  festivals,  however,  are  referred  to  in  the  second 
service  of  the  nearest  Sunday.  An  effort  is  being  made  in  some  quar- 
ters to  observe  the  festivals  in  a  proper  manner  and,  if  possible,  on 
the  proper  day,  and  this  effort  deserves  the  earnest  support  of  all 
those  that  recognize  the  beauty  of  the  Lutheran  calendar  and  the 
possibility  of  true  edification  which  a  proper  observance  of  the  festi- 
vals offers.  The  chances  are  that  a  tactful  and  proper  reference  to 
the  beauties  of  many  festivals  will  stimulate  interest  and  counteract 
the  danger  of  monotony.  The  older  service  books  of  the  Lutheran 
synods  in  America,  the  Book  of  Worship  of  the  General  Synod,  the 
Kirchenbuch  of  the  Council,  the  Agenda  of  the  Missouri  Synod,  as 
well  as  the  new  Liturgy  and  Agenda  of  the  last-named  body  and  the 
Common  Service  Book  of  the  Lutheran  Church  make  proper  provision 
for  the  celebration  of  all  the  fixed  and  movable,  and  of  all  the  chief 
and  minor  festivals.  If  the  observance  of  these  festivals  is  untainted 
by  high-churchism  and  they  are  always  conducted  in  a  strictly  evan- 
gelical spirit,  it  will  surely  redound  to  the  glory  of  God  and  the  Church. 


437)  Horn,  Outlines  of  Lituruies,  28. 

438)  Agende,  1 — 4;  Hatis-,  Schul-  und  Kirchenlmch,  II,  111 — 113; 
Kliefoth,  Die  urspmenyliche  Gottesdienstordnung,  IV,  310 — 369;  Alt,  Das 
Kirchenjalir,  466 — 544;  Richards-Painter,  Christian  Worship,  Chapter 
VIII;  Fuerbringer,  Leitfaden,  6.  7. 


PART  IV. 
The  Liturgical  Content  of  the  Lutheran  Services. 


CHAPTER  1. 
The  Morning  Service  or.the  Communion. 

The  division  of  the  chief  service  of  the  Lutheran  Church,  for- 
merly called  the  Mass,  and  now  known  as  the  Morning  Service  or  the 
Communion,  into  two  groups  of  acts,  the  sacramental  and  the  sacri- 
ficial, is  commonly  accepted  by  liturgiologists.  The  definitions  of 
Melanchthou  in  the  Apology  of  the  Augsburg  Confession  are  short 
and  to  the  point:  "Sacramentum  is  a  ceremony  or  external  sign  or 
act,  by  which  God  gives  that  which  the  divine  promise,  attached  to 
the  ceremony,  oflFers  .  .  .  Sacrificium  is  a  ceremony  or  act  that  we 
offer  to  God,  by  which  we  honor  Him."  ^39)  The  sacramental  group, 
then,  includes  the  forms  and  acts  by  and  through  which  God  deals 
with  His  people:  the  message  of  the  atonement  in  the  Gospel  and 
the  fruit  of  Christ's  redemption  in  the  Sacraments  are  actually  given 
to  the  believer.  The  means  of  grace  provide,  appropriate,  and  seal 
unto  us  our  salvation.  Thus  the  sacramental  idea  of  communicating 
grace  has  the  precedence  in  Christian  worship.  But  upon  it  are  based 
the  acts  of  the  sacrificial  group,  the  fruit  of  the  lips  and  the  fruits  of 
Christian  activity  in  actual  participation  in  the  service.  Acts  2,  42. 
In  practically  all  denominations  outside  of  the  Lutheran  Church, 
there  is  more  or  less  confusion  as  to  the  dividing  line  between  the 
two  groups.  Since  the  tim6  of  Tertullian,  with  his  "sacrificium  of- 
ferri,"  the  idea  that  the  congregation,  through  its  priests,  offers  up  a 
sacrifice  in  the  Eucharist,  gained  ground,  and  that  is  the  conception 
which  underlies  the  sacrifice  of  the  Mass  to  the  present  day.  In  the 
Reformed  churches,  on  the  other  hand,  the  conception  of  the  Eucharist 
as  of  a  mere  memorial  supper  is  commonly  held.  Their  purpose  is 
merely  to  commemorate  the  Lord's  death,  to  remember  His  vicarious 
sacrifice  by  a  commemorative  feast.  The  Lutheran  Church  holds  the 
golden  means,  giving  to  the  means  of  grace  their  full  sacramental 
value,  but  giving  proper  opportunity  to  the  people  also  to  partake  in 
the  worship,  in  the  sacrificial  group  of  the  service  acts,  in  the  prayers, 
hymns,  and  confessions.  It  has  been  stated  that  it  would  be  prefer- 
able to  avoid  these  terms  by  saying  that  the  objective  element  of  wor- 
ship is  found  in  the  Word  and  the  Sacraments,  and  the  subjective 


439)  Mueller,  231,  §§  6.  8. 


376  THE  MORNING  SERVICE  OR  THE  COMMUNION. 

element  in  prayers  and  singing,*^*^)  but  the  terms  sacramental  and 
sacrificial  are  in  such  general  use  and  can  be  explained  so  easily  that 
there  is  no  valid  reason  for  discontinuing  them. 

In  general,  the  chief  service  of  the  Lutheran  Church  may  be  di- 
vided into  two  large  groups:  I.  The  Word  Group  or  Homiletical Part : 
a)   Introit,  Kyrie,  Gloria;   b)    Salutation,   Collect,   Epistle,   Gospel; 

c)  Creed,  Sermon,  Hymn;  11.  The  Eucharist  or  Sacramental  Part: 
a)  Salutation,  Preface,  Sanctus,  Exhortation;  b)  Lord's  Prayer, 
Consecration,  Distribution ;  c)  Postcommunion.'*^!)  Dr.  Jacobs  makes 
the  following  division :  I.  Preparatory  Service,  a)  Confession,  b)  Dec- 
laration of  Grace.  —  The  Service  Proper,  Part  I:  The  Word.   Div.  I: 

a)  Introit,  b)  Kyrie,  c)  Gloria  in  excelsis;    Div.  II:  a)  Salutation, 

b)  Collect,  c)  Epistle,  d)  Hallelujah,  e)  Gospel,  f)  Glory  be  to  Thee, 
O  Lord;    Div.   Ill:    a)    Nicene   Creed,    b)    Sermon,    c)    Offertory, 

d)  General  Prayer.  Part  II:  The  Communion.  Div.  I,  Introduction: 
a)  Salutation,  b)  Preface  with  Sursum,  Gratias,  Dignum,  c)  Sanctus 
with  Hosanna,  d)  Exhortation;  Div.  II,  Consecration:  a)  Lord's 
Prayer,  b)  Words  of  Institution,  c)  Pax ;  Div.  Ill,  Distribution : 
a)  Agnus  Dei,  b)  Distribution  Proper;  Div.  IV,  Postcommunion : 
a)  Xunc  dimittis,  b)  Versicle,  c)  Collect,  d)  Benedicamus  and  Bene- 
diction.**2)  Xhe  "Sketch  of  the  Lutheran  Liturgy"  given  in  An  Ex- 
planation of  the  Common  Service,  p.  68,  differs  only  in  minor  points 
from  this  presentation,  being  in  such  detail  as  to  satisfy  all  ordinary 
requirements. 

After  an  opening  hymn,  usually  a  hymn  of  invocation  to  the 
Holy  Ghost,  by  whom  only  we  can  render  true  worship  to  God  through 
Christ,  1  Cor.  12,  3;  Eph.  2,  18,  the  service  is  opened  with  an  Invoca- 
tion to  the  Triune  God,  Matt.  28,  19;  18,  20;  Ex.  3,  5;  Eccl.  5,  1, 
which  is  responded  to  with  a  hearty  Amen  by  the  congregation,  ex- 
pressing the  firm  conviction  that  Christ  will  fulfil  His  promise  John 
14,  23.  Immediately  there  follows  the  Preparation.  This  part  is 
based  upon  the  Preparatio  in  missam  or  the  Confiteor,  as  it  was  used 
in  the  Middle  Ages.  At  that  time  the  congr^ation  was  not  included 
in  this  section  of  the  liturgy,  the  Confiteor  being  nothing  but  a  litur- 
gical dialog  between  the  officiating  priest  and  his  assistants.  The 
meaning  of  the  preparation  was  that  the  priest  was  being  prepared 
for  his  sacerdotal  functions:  in  confession  and  prayer  he  doffed  his 
usual  clothing,  and  in  donning  his  priestly  vestments  he  became 
worthy  of  offering  sacrifice  for  the  sins  of  the  living  and  of  the  dead. 
In  this  sense  the  Confiteor  was  absolutely  to  be  condemned,  for  which 


440)  Bichards-Painter,  Christian  Worship,  Chapter  I. 

441)  Richards-Painter,  Chapter  X. 

442)  Lutheran  Movement  in  England,  Chapter  XXIV. 


THE  MORNING  SERVICE  OR  THE  COMMUNION.  377 

reason  Luther  as  well  as  most  of  the  early  Church  Orders  omitted  it. 
After  various  experiments  of  the  liturgiologists  of  the  16th  century, 
the  consensus  favoijed  a  general  confession  with  absolution  at  the 
very  opening  of  the  services,  the  confession  of  the  present  order  being 
taken  from  Mecklenburg,  1552.  In  this  sense  it  is  a  splendid  prepa- 
ration for  the  drawing  near  which  the  Christian  does  in  public  worship. 

This  drawing  near  with  a  true  heart  is  done  in  accordance  with 
the  Exhortation,  Heb.  10,  22.  The  heart  and  mind  should  be  properly 
prepared  to  confess,  conscious  of  man's  depravity  and  many  failings, 
Ps.  32,  5 ;  1  John  1,  8.  9.  The  first  step  in  confessing  is  made  in  the 
Versicle,  taken  from  Ps.  124,  8.  God's  mercy  is  invoked  and  His 
willingness  to  forgive  is  stated.  Then  comes  the  Confession  proper, 
with  its  open  statement  and  acknowledgment  of  both  inherited  and 
actual  sin,  followed  by  the  Prayer  for  Grace,  in  which  the  congrega- 
tion joins  the  pastor,  asking  for  pardon  and  also  for  the  fruits  of  this 
remission,  as  shown  in  growth  in  spiritual  knowledge  and  sanctifica- 
tion.  The  climax  of  the  preparatory  service  is  reached  in  the  Decla- 
ration of  Grace,  held  in  a  jubilant  tone  and  declaring  to  each  believer 
full  pardon  and  remission,  and  the  promise  of  God  for  increase  in 
saving  knowledge  and  in  sanctifying  power,  John  3,  16;  1,  12;  Mark 
16,  16. 

The  first  part  or  general  division  of  the  service  proper  is  the  Of- 
fice of  the  Word,  which  is  composed  of  three  parts,  the  Psalmody,  the 
reading  and  preaching  of  the  Word,  and  the  Offerings.  The  character 
of  the  day  and  the  nature  of  the  spiritual  food  it  offers  is  indicated 
by  the  Introit.  This  is  a  remnant  of  the  primitive  psalmody  which 
was  probably  taken  over  into  the  early  Church  from  the  services  of 
the  synagog.  Its  name  was  probably  derived  from  the  fact  that  it 
was  chanted  or  sung  by  the  choir  at  the  great  entrance  of  the  oflSciat- 
ing  priests  with  his  assistants.  The  Psalm  was  sung  antiphonally 
between  the  clergy  officiating  at  the  altar  and  the  choir.  Luther 
favored  the  return  to  the  entire  introductory  Psalm  (quamquam 
psalmos  mallemus).  In  his  order  of  1526  he  advocates  the  singing  of 
an  anthem  or  a  German  Psalm  and  gives  as  an  example  a  setting  of 
Psalm  34.^^2)  At  the  present  time  the  Introit  consists  of  an  Anti- 
phon,  which  is  a  Scripture  passage  expressing  briefly  the  leading 
thought  or  theme  of  the  day,  and  the  verse  or  verses  from  the  Introit 
Psalm,  in  harmony  with  the  thought  of  the  day.  In  order  to  distin- 
guish this  psalmody  from  that  of  the  Jewish  Church,  the  Introit  is 
followed  by  the  Gloria  Patri  or  small  doxology  to  the  Holy  Trinity. 
If  the  fundamental  thought  of  the  day  shall  be  emphasized  very 
strongly,  the  Antiphon  and  the  Introitus  may  be  repeated  after  the 

443)  10,  235. 


378  THE  MORNING  SERVICE  OR  THE  COMMUNION. 

Gloria  Patri,  a  feature  which  is  especially  effective  on  great  festival 
days.  The  importance  of  the  complete  Introit  for  the  full  liturgy  can 
hardly  be  overestimated,  as  is  shown  by  the  fact  that  many  Sundays 
bear  the  names  of  the  first  word  of  the  Latin  Introit,  e.  g.  Estomihi, 
Invocavit,  Reminiscere,  Jubilate,  etc.  This  importance  may  be 
brought  out  still  more  strongly  by  having  the  Introit  sung  or  chanted 
by  a  good  choir,  for  which  Lochner  pleads.  It  enhances  the  impres- 
siveness  of  the  worship  in  a  most  remarkable  way  if  this  is  done,  and 
most  city  churches  will  find  in  their  midst  a  sufficient  number  of 
trained  voices  that  could  do  this  very  effectively.  The  Gloria  Patri 
at  the  close  will  rise  like  a  jubilant  sacrifice  of  the  lips  to  the  throne 
of  God,  Rom.  16,  27;  Eph.  3,  21;  Phil.  4,  20;  Rev.  1,  6. 

With  the  Kyrie  a  new  thought  is  introduced  into  the  service.  It 
is  based  upon  Scriptures,  Ps.  51,  1;  123,  3;  Matt.  9,  27;  15,  22;  20,  30; 
Mark  10,  47 ;  Luke  18,  35 — 43,  and  it  is  found  in  some  of  the  earliest 
liturgies,  as  in  that  of  St.  James,  St.  Mark,  and  others.  It  is  a  plea 
for  the  removal  of  misery  and  suffering,  a  "^confession  of  wretchedness 
to  be  borne  as  a  consequence  of  sins  now  forgiven"  (Jacobs).  ''The 
congregation,  realizing  its  infirmity  from  indwelling  sin,  calls  upon 
God  for  that  grace  which  has  been  announced  and  offered  in  the  In- 
troit" (An  Explanation  of  the  Common  Service).  At  the  same  time, 
it  finds  its  one  solace  in  the  Lord  of  Mercy,  who  out  of  love  of  fallen 
mankind  was  made  incarnate  by  the  Holy  Ghost  and  born  of  the  vir- 
gin Mary  at  Bethlehem,  and  whose  birth  was  hailed  and  acclaimed 
with  the  victorious  shouting  of  the  multitude  of  the  heavenly  host. 

This  sequence  of  thought  is  brought  out  in  a  very  striking  man- 
ner by  the  Gloria  in  excelsis,  Luke  2,  14,  which  now  follows.  The 
introduction  of  this  hymnus  angelicus  into  the  order  of  service  is 
ascribed  to  Bishop  Telesphorus  of  Rome,  about  126  A.  D.  Athanasius 
states  that  the  hymn,  with  its  stately  extension  Ainoumen  se,  Lauda- 
mus  Te,  was  sung  by  the  virgins  as  a  morning  hymn,  and  it  is  found 
complete  in  the  Apostolic  Constitutions.'**^)  Of  the  first  part  of  the 
hymn  Luther  says  truly :  "It  did  not  grow,  nor  was  it  made  on  earth ; 
it  came  down  from  heaven,"  but  the  last  part,  regardless  of  the  author 
of  the  addition,  is  such  a  sublime  doxology,  such  a  rich  outburst  of 
praise  and  thanksgiving  in  honor  of  the  Father  in  the  glory  of  the 
creation  and  reconciliation,  in  adoration  of  the  Son  as  the  Redeemer, 
and  in  magnification  of  the  Triune  God  in  the  fulness  of  His  majesty, 
that  the  entire  hymn  represents  practically  a  unit  of  surpassing  power 
and  loveliness.  The  versification  of  this  hymn  by  Decius,  "All  glory 
be  to  God  on  high,"  and  that  of  Luther,  "All  praise  and  glory  be  to 


444)  Book  VII,  §  47. 


THE  MOHNING  SERVICE  OR  THE  COMMUNION.  "  379 

God,"  may  be  substituted  on  smaller  festivals  and  in  week-day  ser- 
vices, but  the  intonation  by  the  pastor  should  never  be  omitted. 

The  first  part  of  the  service,  the  psalmody,  with  i)etition,  prayer, 
and  praise,  now  having  been  concluded,  the  second  part  of  the  service, 
the  Application  of  the  Word,  begins.  According  to  ancient  usage,  the 
new  liturgical  division  is  introduced  with  the  Salutation,  Judg.  6,  12, 
Ruth  2,  4,  and  the  Response  of  the  congregation,  2  Tim.  4,  22.  It  is 
an  exchange  of  greetings  found  in  the  early  Greek  liturgies.  Pastor 
and  congregation  extend  to  each  other  the  wish  and  prayer  for  the 
presence  of  the  Lord  to  fill  their  hearts,  minds,  and  spirits  with  true 
devotion  for  prayer  and  praise,  for  hearing  the  Word  and  receiving 
the  Sacrament.  On  great  festivals  or  upon  other  extraordinary  occa- 
sions, the  Salutation  may  be  followed  by  a  special  Versicle,  emphasiz- 
ing the  theme  of  the  day.  Hereupon  follows  the  Collect,  or  several 
Collects  on  great  feast  days.  The  collects,  as  Neale  points  out,^^^) 
are  liturgical  prayers;  they  must  therefore  be  short,  embrace  but  one 
main  petition,  consist  of  but  one  sentence,  ask  through  the  merits  of 
the  Lord,  and  end  with  praise  to  the  blessed  Trinity.  The  construc- 
tion of  the  collect  should  be  the  following,  according  to  the  same 
authority:  1)  Invocation,  2)  Antecedent  reason  for  petition,  3)  Peti- 
tion itself,  4)  Benefit  we  hope  to  obtain,  5)  Conclusion.  The  collects 
in  the  ancient  Roman  Sacramentaries,  especially  those  of  Gregory, 
are  models  in  this  respect.  The  collects  which  were  produced  under 
the  influence  of  Pietism  are  usually  the  very  opposite,  full  of  bom- 
bastic phrases  and  platitudes.  Much  has  been  written  in  regard  to 
the  meaning  of  the  collect.  "It  collects  and  concentrates  the  thought 
of  Gospel  and  Epistle"  ;**6)  "collected  by  authority  of  Scriptures  and 
used  for  reading  in  churches";**")  "prayers  in  which  the  wants  and 
perils  or  wishes  and  desires  of  the  whole  people  or  Church  are  together 
presented  to  God."  ***)  The  last  explanation  is  that  which  is  also 
quoted  in  the  original  Latin  by  Kliefoth  **^)  and  is  probably  the  best 
definition.  The  Collect  represents  the  prayers  of  the  jKJople  collected 
in  a  short  form;  it  shows  concentration  of  mind  and  singleness  of 
purpose;  it  is  brief  and  concise  in  form  and  Scriptural  in  content, 
pleading  God's  promises;  it  is  congregational  in  use  and  application, 
voicing  the  needs  of  God's  kingdom  among  men.*^)  The  congrega- 
tion signifies  its  assent  by  an  emphatic  Amen. 

Immediately  after  the  Collect  comes  the  reading  of  the  Epistle. 
This  has  been  the  custom  in  the  Church  since  the  earliest  times. 
Col.  4,  16.    Justin  and  Tertullian  bring  evidence  for  the  further  de- 


445)  Essays  on  Liturgioloiju,  H. 

446)  Explanation  of  the  Common  Service.  447)  Memoirs,  VI:  3. 

448)  Horn,  Outlines  of  Litnrfjics,  73. 

449)  V,  28.  450)  Memoirs,  V:   5. 


880  THE  MORNING  SEEVIOE  OR  THE  COMMUNION. 

• 

velopment  of  the  system  of  readings.  And  the  Apostolic  Constitu- 
tions *^^)  and  the  early  liturgies  show  that  readings  from  the  Law  and 
from  the  Prophets  were  in  use  beside  the  Pauline  Epistles  and  the 
Gospels.  Later,  the  lessons  from  the  Old  Testament  were  transferred 
to  the  minor  services,  especially  to  Vespers,  the  reading  of  the  Psalms 
was  fixed  for  the  canonical  hours,  and  the  disadvantages  of  the  lectio 
continua  were  removed  by  a  system  of  pericopes  whose  father  was 
Jerome.  The  Lutheran  Church  has  retained  the  Epistle  pericopes 
according  to  the  ancient  system.  With  all  its  faults,  which  Luther 
freely  points  out,  the  advantages  are  so  great  for  both  pastor  and 
people  that  the  practise  should  not  be  discontinued.  At  the  same 
time,  the  new  pericopes  which  have  been  selected  both  abroad  and 
here  (Eisenach,  Synodical  Conference,  etc.)  may  well  be  chosen  in 
alternate  years.  The  chanting  of  the  lessons  is  no  longer  in  general 
use  and  it  is  doubtful  whether  it  would  be  wise  to  reintroduce  it,  in 
spite  of  the  earnest  efforts  of  Lochner  and  other  liturgiologists.  While 
it  may  readily  be  granted  that  a  dramatic  recital  of  the  lessons  is  not 
the  proper  thing  for  the  church  services,  it  must  also  be  conceded,  on 
the  other  hand,  that  the  chanting  of  a  long  passage  requires  much 
ability  and  more  practise,  and  even  then  tends  to  be  monotonous.  The 
lessons  are  a  form  of  proclaiming  the  Word  and  should  be  treated 
accordingly. 

At  the  end  of  the  Epistle,  the  congregation  answers  with  a  joy- 
ful Hallelujah,  praising  the  Lord  for  the  unspeakable  gift  contained 
in  His  Word.  It  is  at  this  point  in  the  services  that  the  graduals, 
sequences,  proses,  tracts,  hymns,  or  tropes  were  inserted,  which  were 
discussed  in  a  previous  chapter.  If  a  congregation  have  a  good  choir, 
proper  sequences  may  be  sung  after  the  Hallelujah.  So  far  as  other 
choir  music  is  concerned,  its  most  fitting  position  is  here,  but  it  must 
be  in  harmony  with  the  thought  of  the  day.  "Special  music  at  any 
other  place  in  the  service  should  be  discontinued."  ^^^) 

The  reading  of  the  Gospel  has  always  received  special  liturgical 
consideration  in  the  service.  The  announcement  of  the  reading  is 
hailed  with  the  sentence  "Glory  be  to  Thee,  O  Lord,"  and  the  "Praise 
be  to  Thee,  O  Christ"  at  the  close  signifies  the  grateful  acceptance  of 
the  Word  by  the  congregation.  The  congregation  has  seen,  with  the 
eyes  of  faith,  the  Word  of  God  Incarnate,  and  its  sentence  of  glory 
rises  up  to  the  throne  of  grace.  It  seems  almost  self-evident  that  the 
liturgist  will  turn  to  the  congregation  during  the  reading  of  the  les- 
sons. And  since  the  fact  that  the  congregation  should  be  able  to  hear 
the  Word  is  essential,  it  would  seem  advisable  for  all  congregations 
to  have  a  lectern  on  the  side  of  the  chancel  opposite  the  pulpit,  in 


451)  II,  §§  39.  57.  452)  Explanation  of  the  Common  Service,  35. 


THE  MORNING  SERVICE  OR  THE  COMMUNION.  381 

order  that  the  pastor  may  be  nearer  to  the  congregation  at  this  im- 
portant point  in  the  liturgy. 

After  the  Gospel  comes  the 'Creed,  the  proper  Creed  for  the  chief 
service  being  the  Nicene  Creed.  Its  use  in  the  service  may  be  traced 
back  to  488  or  even  476  A.  D.,  when  Peter  the  Fuller,  Patriarch  of 
Antioch,  introduced  it.  The  custom  entered  Europe  by  way  of  Spain, 
in  589  A.  D.  It  was  used  in  Rome  under  Benedict  VIII  in  1014. 
Luther  retained  its  use  for  the  chief  service  and  transcribed  it  into 
verse-form  for  the  German  order.  The  Apostolic  Creed  is  the  Creed 
of  Baptism,  but  may  be  used  in  minor  services.  It  is  especially  ef- 
fective if  the  pastor  intones  the  Credo  and  the  entire  congregation 
sings  or  chants  the  Creed  as  its  confession,  based  upon  the  reading  of 
the  Gospel  which  has  gone  before,  and  voicing  the  fundamental  rule 
or  confession  of  faith  before  all  men. 

After  the  Creed,  a  hymn  which  should  be  chosen  with  reference 
to  the  thought  of  the  day,  prepares  for  the  Sermon.  Its  position  at 
the  climax  of  the  homiletical  part  needs  no  apology  or  defense  in  the 
Lutheran  Church.  The  principle  of  Luther  that  it  is  better  neither 
to  sing  nor  to  pray  nor  to  come  together  if  the  Word  is  not  preached, 
is  subscribed  to  without  question  to  this  day,  wherever  the  spirit  of 
Luther  is  still  to  be  found.  •  When  we  come  to  that  point  that  special 
music  is  emphasized  and  the  subject  of  the  sermon  is  inserted  into 
the  so-called  program  ( ?)  with  an  apology,  to  which  is  added  the 
promise  that  it  will  be  only  a  short  talk  of  no  more  than  10 — 15  min- 
utes, we  shall  cease  to  have  a  mission  as  a  church.  The  Sermon 
closes  with  the  Votum,  Phil.  4,  7. 

With  the  Sermon,  the  homiletical  part  of  the  service  has  reached 
its  climax.  But  the  third  section  of  this  group  is  also  of  no  little 
importance,  since  it  brings  the  sacrificial  element  of  the  congrega- 
tion's attitude  toward  the  Word,  in  the  question  of  the  proper  appli- 
cation of  the  principles  of  sanctification.  In  the  Offertory,  Ps.  51, 
17 — 19.  10 — 12,  the  assembled  congregation  confesses  its  grateful  and 
humble  acceptance  of  the  Word  which  has  just  been  proclaimed,  all 
the  faithful  offering  themselves,  their  substance,  and  the  sacrifices  of 
prayer,  praise,  and  thanksgiving  to  the  Lord.  The  Word  has  been 
appropriated  by  them  and  has  become  eflfective  in  them.  It  is  hardly 
necessary  to  affirm  that  the  Lutheran  Offertory  has  absolutely  nothing 
in  common  with  the  oblation  of  the  Mass  which  is  practised  by  the 
Roman  Church  at  this  point.  Even  the  Offering  of  Gifts,  which  in 
most  churches  takes  place  during  the  Offertory  or  during  a  Voluntary 
or  Hymn  immediately  following  it,  has  nothing  in  common  with  any 
oblation  in  the  Romish  sense.  It  is  merely  a  free-will  offering  for 
the  Church,  its  missions,  and  all  other  enterprises. 


382  THE  MOBNING  SEEVICE  OB  THE  COMMUNION. 

The  General  Prayer  of  the  Common  Service  is  a  splendid  exam- 
ple of  concise  and  still  complete  statement  of  petition.  It  is  taken 
from  the  Strassburg  Order  of  1598,  and  in  its  chief  parts  has  been 
traced  back  to  1553.  It  is  a  model  prayer  according  to  the  apostolic 
injunction  that  supplications,  prayers,  intercessions,  and  giving  of 
thanks  be  made  for  all  men,  1  Tim.  2,  1.  2.  The  General  Prayer  is 
very  properly  concluded  with  the  Lord's  Prayer,  as  containing  the 
petitions  for  all  spiritual  and  temporal  wants,  for  all  time.  A  hymn 
of  praise  and  adoration  is  next  sung  by  the  congr^ation,  thus  ending 
the  Office  of  the  Word.  If  there  is  no  communion,  the  Doxology  and 
the  Benediction  are  used,  and  the  congregation  leaves  the  house  of 
worship  after  silent  prayer. 

As  a  rule,  however,  the  Holy  Supper  should  be  celebrated  in  the 
chief  service.  As  an  introduction  to  this  solemn  service,  a  hymn  is 
sung  which  expresses  the  earnest  expectation  and  devotion  of  the  1^- 
lievers  with  reference  to  the  Eucharist.  During  the  singing  of  this 
hymn,  the  pastor  comes  to  the  altar  and  arranges  the  sacred  vessels 
with  their  contents  in  their  proper  place,  the  ciborium  and  the  paten 
with  the  proper  number  of  wafers  on  the  left  side,  and  the  flagons 
and  the  chalice  with  the  wine  on  the  right  hand  side.  At  the  close  of 
the  hymn,  the  first  part  of  the  service  of  the  Holy  Communion  is  be- 
gun, the  Preface.  The  Salutation  and  Response  are  sung  to  indicate 
the  opening  of  a  new  part  of  the  service.  The  Prefatory  Sentences, 
Sursum,  and  Gratias  are  held  in  an  elevated  tone,  in  conformity  with 
the  solemnity  of  the  occasion.  And  then  comes  the  impressive,  beauti- 
ful Preface  proper.  The  simple  Preface  was  in  use  in  the  Liturgy  of 
St.  James  and  may  have  a  still  greater  antiquity.  In  the  fourth  cen- 
tury. Prefaces  were  composed  for  all  the  festivals  and  their  seasons, 
which  are  now  called  Proper  Prefaces.  They  are  Eucharistic  Prayers 
of  thanksgiving  of  singular  beauty,  seeming  to  gain,  with  every  new 
sentence,  in  joyful  cadence  until  each  one  reaches  its  culmination  in 
the  burst  of  triumphant  melody  on  the  part  of  the  congregation,  the 
Hymnus  seraphicus  or  Sanctus,  Is.  6,  3;  Ps.  118,  26.  Its  first  part  is 
heaven's  hymn  of  praise,  its  second  is  earth's  hymn  of  praise,  and 
both  together  form  such  an  exalted  strain  of  glorification  and  thanks- 
giving that  the  soul  is  transported  to  taste  some  of  the  joy  of  the 
great  Beyond.  The  second  part  of  the  hymn,  usually  called  the  Bene- 
dictus,  resolves  the  whole  Sanctus  into  a  hymn  of  praise  to  Christ  as 
God,  John  12,  41.  The  Exhortation,  after  Luther  and  Volprecht  of 
Nuernberg,  1525,  makes  a  break  in  the  liturgical  service  and  may 
fitly  be  omitted,  esi)ecially  as  there  should  always  be  a  preparatory 
service  for  those  that  wish  to  partake  of  Holy  Communion. 

The  second  part  of  the  Communion  service  proper  is  the  Adminis- 
tration, which  is  opened  with  the  chanting  of  the  Lord's  Prayer.    Of 


THE  MORNING  SEBVICE  OR  THE  COMMUNION.  383 

this  prayer  Cyprian  properly  said:  "What  prayer  can  be  more  spiri- 
tual than  that  which  was  given  us  by  Christ,  by  whom  also  the  Holy 
Spirit  was  sent?  What  petition  more  true  before  the  Father  than 
that  which  came  from  the  lips  of  His  Son,  who  is  the  Truth?"  It 
should  be  noted,  however,  that  it  is  not  a  prayer  of  consecration  at 
this  point,  on  the  order  of  the  Invocation  or  Epiklesis  of  the  Eastern 
Church.  But  since  the  praying  of  the  Lord's  Prayer  was  always  con- 
sidered a  peculiar  privilege  of  believers,  who  alone  can  pray  it  in 
spirit  and  in  truth,  it  was  considered  especially  fitting  before  the 
meal  which  is  a  confession  and  declaration  of  union  and  commimion 
between  believers.  By  reciting  it,  they  become  conscious  of  their 
adoption  and  feel  that  they  may  come  to  the  Lord  as  fellow-members 
of  the  same  body. 

Immediately  after  the  Lord's  Prayer  follow  the  Words  of  Insti- 
tution, taken  verbally  from  the  Gospels,  without  transcriptions  and 
additions.  These  words  teach  the  sacramental  use,  the  sacramental 
presence,  the  sacramental  benefit,  and  the  sacramental  institution. 
Since  they  are  the  words  of  administration,  they  are  also  very  properly 
the  words  of  consecration.  It  is  by  means  of  these  words,  taken  from 
Scriptures  themselves,  that  the  bread  and  the  wine  on  the  altar  are 
set  apart  for  sacred  use  and  the  eating  and  drinking  is  distinguished 
from  ordinary  use,  becoming  a  Sacrament.  It  is  necessary,  therefore, 
that  the  liturgist  speak  or  chant  the  words  with  a  loud  and  distinct 
voice,  to  distinguish  the  pure  Sacrament  from  the  abomination  of 
the  Mass,  where  the  Secreta  as  well  as  the  Words  of  Institution  are 
murmured  and  in  places  whispered.  The  celebration  in  the  Lutheran 
Church  is  that  of  the  congregation,  and  the  pastor  is  merely  acting 
in  their  stead,  as  the  steward  over  God's  mysteries.  At  the  close  of 
the  consecration,  the  pastor  turns  to  the  congregation  and  chants  the 
Pax,  Luke  24,  30;  John  20,  19—21;  Rom.  16,  16;  1  Pet.  5,  14.  It  is 
the  greeting  of  the  risen  Lord  to  the  believers  who  are  about  to  par- 
take of  His  holy  body  and  blood. 

As  the  pastor  turns  back  to  the  altar,  the  congregation  chants  the 
Agnus  Dei,  John  1,  29,  during  which  the  communicants  begin  to 
come  forward.  The  Lamb  of  God  who,  by  His  vicarious  sacrifice, 
gained  a  complete  redemption  for  us,  is  implored  to  grant  His  mercy 
and  His  peace  to  those  that  are  now  partakers  of  His  heavenly  meal. 
The  Agnus  Dei  is  an  ancient  morning  hymn,  which  has  been  in  use 
in  the  Church  since  early  times  and  inserted  into  the  communion 
service  by  Sergius  I  (687 — 700).  The  distribution  is  made  with  the 
words :  Take  and  eat,  this  is  the  body  of  Christ,  given  for  thee ;  Take 
and  drink,  this  is  the  blood  of  the  New  Testament,  shed  for  thy  sins. 
On  account  of  Reformed  errors,  the  word  "true"  was  inserted  before 
"body"  and  "blood"  by  liturgiologists  at  the  end  of  the  16th  century. 


384  THE  MINOR  SERVICES. 

It  serves  as  an  emphatic  assertion,  especially  in  places  and  circum- 
stances where  such  a  confession  is  necessary  to  prevent  the  iatrusion 
of  false  ideas. 

The  third  part  of  the  Communion  service,  the  Postcommunion, 
is  ushered  in  with  the  exalted  strains  of  the  Nunc  dimittis,  Luke  2, 
29 — 32.  The  believer,  having  received  the  fulness  of  God's  grace  and 
mercy,  having  partaken  of  the  body  and  blood  of  his  Savior,  and  hav- 
ing thus  seen  the  salvation  of  the  Lord,  feels  that  he  may  now  depart 
in  peace.  The  Xunc  dimittis  is  fitly  closed  with  the  Gloria  Patri,  the 
doxology  being  due  to  the  Triune  God  for  the  manifestations  of  mercy, 
glory,  and  power.  The  Thanksgiving  Collect,  preceded  by  the  Thanks- 
giving Versicle,  as  found  in  Psalms  105,  106,  107,  118,  136  is  then 
chanted.  It  expresses  the  heartfelt  gratitude  of  the  believer  for  the 
benefits  he  has  received  and  asks  for  the  further  manifestation  of 
sanctifying  grace. 

The  service  closes  with  the  Benedicamus,  the  Salutation  and  Re- 
sponse, and  the  Versicle  of  Benediction,  Ps.  41,  13 ;  72,  18.  19 ;  89,  52 ; 
106,  48;  150,  6.  It  is  a  joyful  heart's  cry:  Bless  the  Lord,  O  my  soul, 
and  forget  not  all  His  benefits.  The  congregation  is  dismissed  with 
the  Aaronic  Blessing,  Num.  6,  24 — 26.  This  is  not  a  mere  pious  wish, 
but  the  actual  imparting  of  the  blessing  of  the  Triune  God  to  the 
believers,  who  may  now  go  down  into  their  houses  justified,  rejoicing 
in  the  goodness  of  the  Lord.  This  is  emphasized  by  the  final  Amen 
of  the  congregation.^52) 


CHAPTER  2. 
The  Minor  Services:   Vespers,  Matins,  and  Confession. 

The  canonical  hours  were  observed  by  the  Church  at  a  very  early 
date,  those  in  the  Orient  being  the  following:  Mesonyktion  or  Noc- 
tumum,  at  midnight;  Matina  (Matutinum  and  Laudes),  at  3  A.  M.; 
Prime,  at  6  A.  M.;  Terce,  combined  with  the  Typikon,  at  9  A.  M. ; 
Sext,  at  12  noon;  Nones,  at  3  P.  M. ;  Vespers  (combined  with  Vigils 
before  fasts),  at  6  P.  AI. ;  Completorium,  at  9  P.  M.  The  nvmaber 
eight  in  this  connection  was  based  upon  Neh.  9,  3.  The  Western 
Church  having  at  all  times  had  a  predilection  for  the  mystical  num- 
ber seven,  preferred  to  have  only  seven  canonical  hours,  the  Noctur- 


453)  For  the  entire  discussion,  cp.  Memoirs,  I:  3;  V.  6;  An  Ex- 
planation of  the  Common  Service.,  39 — 68;  Lochner,  Der  Hauptgottesdiemt, 
80 — ^277;  Kli^foth,  Die  nrspruengliche  Gottesdienstordnung,  V,  1 — 135; 
Schuette,  Before  the  Altar.  48 — 77;  Fuerbringer,  Leitfaden,  Liturgik: 
11 — 25;  Horn,  Outlines  of  Liturgies.  32 — 90;  Alt,  Der  kirchliche  Gottes- 
dienst,  483 — 512;  Public  Worship  in  the  Lutheran  Church,  by  A.  G.,  in 
Theol.  Quart.,  I,  37  ff. 


THE  MORNING  SEEVICE  OR  THE  COMMUNION.  385 

num  being  combined  wither  with  the  Completorium  or  with  Matins 
and  Lauds.  The  Breviary  contains  the  prayers  and  Psahns  for  these 
services,  whether  they  be  held  as  OflScia  publica,  in  monasteries  and 
cathedral  churches,  or  as  Officia  privata,  which  all  members  of  the 
clergy,  being  canonici  and  therefore  under  the  canon,  are  obliged 
to  keep. 

The  nature  of  the  services  and  the  circumstances  of  every-day 
life  soon  made  it  necessary  to  reduce  the  number  of  services  for  the 
general  public  during  the  week  to  two  hours  of  devotion.  Matins  and 
"Vespers.  Ou  S\indays,  Vigils,  Matins,  and  Prime  together  became 
Early  Mass,  Terce  and  Sext  were  combined  for  the  chief  service,  and 
Nones  and  Vespers  were  united  for  the  afternoon  service.  The  people 
then  had  sufficient  opportunity  to  attend  services,  and  all  occasion  for 
offense  was  removed.  This  state  of  affairs  continued  till  the  16th 
century. 

The  Lutheran  reformers,  with  Luther  as  their  leader,  many  of 
whom  had  been  inmates  of  monasteries,  retained  the  service  of  the 
canonical  hours,  especially  Matins  and  Vespers.  The  service  now 
kno\vn  as  Matins  or  Morning  Prayer  is  a  combination  of  Matins, 
Lauds,  and  Prime,  that  which  is  called  Vespers  or  Evensong  is  a 
union  of  Vespers  and  Compline.  For  both  of  these  services  Luther 
and  his  coworkers,  as  well  as  the  liturgiologists  till  the  end  of  the 
century,  retained  the  four  major  parts:  Hymnody,  Psalmody,  Les- 
sons, Prayers,  as  well  as  the  so-called  minor  parts:  at  Matins  the  In- 
vitatory  with  the  Venite,  and  at  Matins  and  Vespers  both  the  Ver- 
sicles,  Antiphons,  and  Responsories.  The  ancient  order  of  Matins 
had  been:  Pater  Noster,  Ave  Maria,  Credo,  Invitatory,  Venite  exul- 
temus.  Hymn,  Nocturn  (of  twelve  Psalms,  recited  two  and  two  to- 
gether, under  one  antiphon),  —  in  double  festivals  the  antiphons  are 
doubled — ,  Farced  Lections  (insertion  of  Kyrie  eleison.  Tropes), 
Nocturns  end  with  Verse  and  Response,  Lord's  Prayer,  Absolutions, 
Benedictions.  The  Lections  or  Homilies  were  taken  from  the  Church 
fathers  for  use  in  the  Noctums.  The  Te  Deum,  which  really  indi- 
cated the  close  of  Matins,  was  followed  immediately  by  Lauds,  which 
contained  the  following  parts:  Psalm  93  and  100,  63  and  67  under 
one  Gloria,  Benedicite,  a  short  Chapter,  Hymn,  Versicle  and  Re- 
sponse, Benedictus,  Collect  for  the  Day.  At  Vespers,  the  order  was 
much  the  same:  Pater  Noster,  four  or  five  Psalms,  each  under  its 
own  Antiphon,  short  Chapter,  Hymn,  Verse  and  Response,  Magnifi- 
cat with  its  proper  Antiphon  and  Collect.  In  Advent  and  Lent,  the 
closed  seasons,,  the  Preces  and  Psalm  51  were  used  after  the  Magni- 
ficat.^54)      Luther   retained   all   that  was   not   in    itself   wrong,   but 


454)  Nenle,  Essays  on  Liturgiology,  I. 

Kretzmann,  Christian  Art.  26 


386  TH^  KOBNING  SEBVICF  OK  THE  CX)lUn7KI0N. 

shortened  both  services  so  as  to  have  three  lessons  in  each,  with  the 
proper  Responsories,  the  Old  Testament  lessons  being  commended  for 
use  in  the  morning  and  the  New  Testament  lessons  in  the  evening.***) 

In  proposing  the  retention  of  these  additional  or  supplementary 
(not  subsidiary)  services,  Luther  acted  with  his  ctistomary  conserva- 
tism, carefulness,  and  tact.  He  says,  in  his  Formidae  Missae  of  1523 : 
"On  work-days,  I  see  nothing  that  might  not  be  sxiflFered,  but  that  the 
Masses  be  abrogated.  For  the  Matins  of  three  lessons  and  the  horae 
canonicae,  Vesi)ers  and  Compline  de  temjwre,  excepting  on  the  great 
festivals,  are  nothing  but  words  of  Holy  Scriptures,  and  it  is  a  good 
thing,  yea,  necessary  that  the  boys  become  used  to  reading  and  hear- 
ing the  Psalms,  and  whatever  other  lessons  are  read  from  Scriptures. 
But  if  something  new  should  be  introduced  here,  the  long  chanting 
might  be  changed  according  to  the  discretion  of  the  pastor,  in  this 
way  that  three  Psalms  be  sung  at  Matins  and  three  at  Vespers,  with 
one  or  two  Kesponses.  .  .  For  this  reason  lessons  must  be  prescribed 
to  be  read  daily :  one  early  from  the  New  or  Old  Testament,  the  other 
in  the  afternoon,  whether  it  be  from  the  Old  or  Xew  Testament,  with 
a  short  explanation  of  that  lesson  in  a  known  language."  *^)  And  in 
the  Deutsche  Mess  of  1526  he  writes :  *^arly  at  five  or  six  at  Matins 
a  few  Psalms  are  sung.  Then  the  Epistle  of  the  day  is  preached, 
chiefly  for  the  sake  of  the  servants,  that  they  also  be  supplied  and 
hear  the  Word  of  God,  in  case  they  could  not  be  present  in  other  ser- 
vices. Then  an  Antiphon  and  the  Te  Deum  laudamus  or  Benedictus 
antiphonally  with  the  Lord's  Prayer,  Collect,  and  Baiedicamus  Do- 
mino. ...  Li  the  afternoon,  at  Vespers,  before  the  Magnificat,  the 
Old  Testament  is  preached  in  due  order."  ^^)  He  then  explains  his 
plan  in  detail,  especially  as  to  the  necessity  of  instruction  in  the 
Catechism  and  in  the  Word  of  God  by  systematic  reading  and  expo- 
sition.***) Thus  Luther,  and  his  coworkers  with  him,  emphasized  the 
elem^it  of  instruction  from  the  Word  of  God  as  the  most  essential 
part  in  the  services. 

In  recent  years,  the  American  Lutheran  Church  has  paid  more 
attention  to  the  additional  services.  And  the  result  is  highly  satis- 
factory, both  from  an  aesthetic  and  artistic  and  from  a  devotional 
point  of  view.  In  city  chiirches,  where  the  majority  of  the  people  live 
near  the  house  of  worship,  the  introduction  of  such  services  should 
redound  to  great  benefit.  In  schools,  collies,  and  seminaries  it  is  a 
matter  of  feasibility  and  expediency  at  the  same  time.  The  fact  that 
the  principal  Psalms  and  the  chief  parts  of  Scriptures  that  may  be 
read  in  public  are  thus  taken  through  in  the  course  of  a  year,  makes 


455)  Horn,  136.  456)  10,  2253.  2254. 

457)  10,  233.  458)  10.  234.  Sf  22—25. 


THE  MOBNING  SERVICE  OR  THE  COMMUNION.  387 

the  introduction  of  the  ancient  services  highly  desirable.  And  the 
chances  are  that  a  closer  acquaintance  with  the  beautiful  contents  of 
the  services  will  awaken  and  maintain  both  interest  in  them  and  love 
for  them. 

The  service  of  Matins  opens  with  the  Versicles  Domine  labia 
(O  Lord,  open  Thou  my  lips),  Ps.  51,  15,  and  the  Deus  in  adjutorium 
(Make  haste,  O  God,  to  deliver  me)  Ps.  70,  1,  Both  the  praising  of 
the  Lord  for  the  gifts  of  the  day  and  the  supplicating  for  their  gra- 
cious vouchsafing  are  expressed  in  these  opening  sentences.  And  the 
Gloria  Patri  addresses  the  prayer  to  the  Triune  God,  whose  praise  is 
expressed  in  the  Hallelujah,  and  faith  in  whose  willingness  to  help  is 
confessed  in  the  Amen. 

Immediately  after  the  opening  the  Invitatory,  Ps.  95,  6,  is  chan- 
ted, with  the  Venite,  Ps.  95,  1 — 7,  added.  This  Psalm  is  always  used 
at  Matins  with  the  Invitatory,  having  been  in  use  in  that  capacity 
since  ancient  times.  Even  if  other  Psalms  (1 — 109)  are  chanted  in 
order  in  the  course  of  about  a  month,  this  Psalm  always  forms  a  part 
of  the  worship.  It  was  introduced  for  the  use  of  Matins  by  Pope 
Damasus  (died  384). 

After  a  Hymn,  which  should  express  the  central  thought  of  the 
season  or  the  day,  has  been  sung,  the  Psalms  are  read  or  chanted, 
those  from  1  to  109,  as  noted  above,  being  used  in  Matin  services. 
Each  Psalm  has  an  Antiphou  preceding  and  following  it  as  an  Invi- 
tatorj',  which  shoiJd  also  conform  to  the  character  of  the  season.  The 
Gloria  Patri  is  sung  after  every  Psalm.  After  the  Psalms  come  the 
Lessons  which  are  chosen  so  that  every  part  of  Scripture  suitable  for 
public  reading  is  used  in  the  course  of  the  year.  The  lectio  continua 
will  follow  a  Comes  which  will  embrace  every  book  of  the  Bible. 
After  each  Lesson  the  Response  "But  Thou,  O  Lord,  have  mercy,"  is 
sung  or  said. 

After  this  follows  either  a  Hymn  or  the  Responsory,  the  latter 
serving  to  connect  the  Lessons  with  the  church  year.  It  is  in  the 
form  of  a  farced  verse  with  a  short  Gloria  Patri.  The  Responsory  is 
in  use  since  ancient  times,  since  it  is  mentioned  by  Gregory  of  Tours 
(died  595)  and  Isidore  of  Seville  (died  636). 

The  Sermon,  which  comes  next,  was  introduced  according  to  the 
maxim  of  Luther  in  regard  to  the  necessity  of  the  instruction  in  the 
Word  of  God.  After  the  Sermon,  which  will  be  in  the  nature  of  a 
homiletic  discussion  or  brief  exposition,  comes  the  Canticle  Te  Deum 
laudamus,  whose  authorship  was  formerly  ascribed  to  St.  Ambrose. 
Instead  of  this  canticle  the  Benedictus  may  be  sung,  with  which  is 
usually  connected  an  Antiphon.  Under  circumstances,  the  Athana- 
sian  Creed,  often  called  the  Hymn  of  St.  Athanasius  concerning  the 
Holy  Trinity,  or  the  Psalm  Quicunque  vult,  may  be  substituted. 


388  THE  MORNING  SERVICE  OR  THE  COMMUNION. 

The  Prayers  are  next  in  order,  consisting  of  the  Kyrie,  a  cry  over 
the  misery  and  distress  of  fallen  mankind,  but  also  of  faith  in  the 
merciful  help  of  the  Lord,  the  Lord's  Prayer,  and  the  Collects,  So 
far  as  the  latter  are  concerned,  either  the  Collect  for  the  Day  or  that 
for  Grace  may  be  used.  To  give  proper  variety  to  the  services,  the 
Suffrages  or  the  Litany,  of  which  Luther  thought  so  highly,  may  be 
inserted  here.  The  service  closes,  like  the  chief  service,  with  the 
Benedicamus,  followed  by  the  Benediction  of  St.  Paul,  2  Cor.  13,  14. 

The  services  at  Vespers  have  the  same  general  order  as  Matins, 
the  main  difference  being  that  the  Hymnody  precedes  the  Prayers. 
In  the  evening  the  faithful  Christian  first  of  all  seeks  for  forgiveness, 
the  assurance  of  God's  mecry  after  the  work  of  the  day,  and  then 
praises  Him  for  all  His  goodness  and  commends  his  soul  to  the  Lord 
for  safe  keeping  during  the  night.  There  is  no  Livitatory  nor  Livi- 
tatory  Psalm.  The  Canticles  of  Vespers  are  the  Magnificat,  Luke  1, 
46 — 55,  and  the  Nunc  dimittis,  Luke  2,  29 — 32,  both  of  which  have 
been  in  use  in  the  Church  since  the  early  centuries,  the  latter  being 
mentioned  in  the  Apostolic  Constitutions.  The  Collect  at  the  end  of 
Vespers  is  the  beautiful  Collect  for  Peace,  preceded  by  the  Versicle 
"The  Lord  will  give  strength  unto  His  people."  The  peace  of  God, 
which  passeth  all  understanding,  is  the  last  thought  of  the  Christian, 
wherewith  he  commends  his  soul  into  the  hands  of  his  heavenly  Father 
for  the  night.459) 

A  service  which  is  characteristic  of  the  Lutheran  Church  is  the 
service  of  Confession,  held  either  on  Saturday  evening  (Beicht- 
Vesper)  or  on  Sunday  morning  just  before  services,  preparatory  to 
the  communion  service.  So  long  as  private  confession  was  still  prac- 
tised, for  250  to  300  years,  the  need  of  a  special  congregational  ser- 
vice was  not  so  great.  But  since  the  period  of  liturgical  deteriora- 
tion, this  old  beneficial  custom  has  fallen  into  disuse,  and  it  seems 
impossible  to  arouse  the  necessary  interest  in  America  for  its  rein- 
troduction.  In  a  measure,  at  least,  we  have  a  substitute  for  the  an- 
cient custom  in  the  present  usage  of  personal  announcements  for  Holy 
Communion.  The  service  itself  is  very  simple  in  character.  After 
a  hymn  of  confession  and  repentance,  a  Versicle  or  appropriate  Prayer 
is  read  by  the  pastor,  followed  by  a  short  address  to  the  communi- 
cants. The  General  Confession  is  then  spoken  and  the  Absolution 
pronounced,  the  service  closing  with  a  Hymn  expressing  the  faith  of 
the  congregation  in  the  certainty  of  the  absolution  and  the  mercy  of 
the  Lord.460) 


459)  Cp.  Explanation  of  the  Common  Service,  71 — 91;  Horn,  Outlines 
of  Liturgies,  133 — 139;  Kliefoth,  Die  urspruengliche  Gottesdienstordnung, 
V,  164—199;  Memoirs,  II:  5. 

460)  Cp.  Kliefoth,  Liturgische  Abhandlungen,  II:  Beichte  und  Ab- 
solution: Memoirs,  "VT:  5. 


OCCASIONAL  SACRED  ACTS,  389 

CHAPTER  3. 
Liturgical   Forms  for  Occasional   Sacred  Acts. 

The  Lutheran  Church  is  justly  proud  of  the  beauty  of  its  occa- 
sional acts,  not  only  of  the  forms  which  are  the  heritage  of  the  ages, 
having  merely  been  cleansed  of  the  various  false  and  dangerous  addi- 
tions and  excrescences  which  had  accumulated  under  the  influence  of 
false  doctrines,  but  also  of  those  which  have  been  composed  or  com- 
piled by  well-trained  Lutheran  liturgiologista  in  the  past  400  years. 
The  influence  of  these  sanely  conservative  and  eminently  chaste  forms 
has  extended  even  beyond  the  denominational  boundaries,  being 
freely  acknowledged  by  critics  that  may  be  considered  exceptionally 
competent  in  this  field. 

The  most  ancient  form  for  occasional  acts  in  the  Christian 
Church  is  that  for  Baptism.  Of  the  manner  of  application  in  apos- 
tolic times,  and  of  the  ceremonies  accompanying  the  act  of  baptizing, 
we  know  nothing  beyond  the  simple  account  of  Scriptures.  The  rite 
of  Baptism  was  performed  with  water  in  the  name  of  the  Father,  and 
of  the  Son,  and  of  the  Holy  Ghost,  Matt.  28,  19 ;  Acts  2,  41.  At  the 
time  of  the  Didache  the  form  of  Baptism  was  still  very  simple,  for 
the  regulation  reads :  "Concerning  Baptism,  baptize  thus :  Having 
first  rehearsed  all  these  things,  'baptize  in  the  name  of  the  Father, 
and  of  the  Son,  and  of  the  Holy  Spirit,'  in  running  water;  but  if 
thou  hast  no  running  water,  baptize  in  other  water,  and  if  thou  canst 
not  in  cold,  then  in  warm.  But  if  thou  hast  neither,  pour  water  three 
times  on  the  head  'in  the  name  of  the  Father,  Son,  and  Spirit'."  *^^) 
This  passage  is  interesting,  not  only  on  account  of  its  great  antiquity, 
but  also  on  account  of  the  fact  that  is  presents  one  of  the  oldest 
proofs  for  a  mode  of  Baptism  by  other  methods  than  immersion. 
Justin  Martyr's  accoimt  also  describes  a  very  simple  rite:  "Then 
[after  proper  instruction]  they  are  brought  by  us  to  a  place  where 
there  is  water,  and  are  regenerated  in  the  same  manner  as  we  also 
were  regenerated.  For  in  the  name  of  God  the  Father  and  Lord  of 
the  universe,  and  of  our  Lord  Jesus  Christ,  and  of  the  Holy  Ghost, 
they  then  receive  Baptism  with  water."  *^^)  In  the  Apostolic  Consti- 
tutions the  formula  is  much  longer.  It  embraces  the  following  parts : 
Renunciation,  Creed,  Anointing,  Benediction  of  Water,  Act  of  Bap- 
tism, Imposition  of  Hands,  Lord's  Prayer,  Prayer  of  Thanksgiving. 
According  to  Tertullian,*^)  the  ceremonies  of  Baptism  included: 
Invocation  of  the  Holy  Ghost  and  Benediction  of  the  Water,  Renun- 
ciation, Immersion  (threefold).  Creed,  Anointing,  Imposition  of 
Hands. 


461)  Lake,  The  Apostolic  Fathers.  319.  330;   Cabrol,  Monumenta,  52. 

462)  First  Apology,  Chapter  XLI.  463)  De  corona.  III. 


390  OCCASIONAL  8ACEBD  ACTS. 

In  the  early  centuries,  the  ceremony  of  Baptism  was  performed 
principally  for  adults  and  the  forms  and  descriptions  which  are  ex- 
tant from  the  early  days  have  the  baptismus  adultorum  in  mind.  It 
was  only  gradually  that  the  baptismus  clinicorum  paved  the  way  for 
a  general  baptismus  parvulorum.  This  does  not  by  any  means  imply 
that  paedobaptism  was  unknown,  just  as  the  fact  that  immersion  was 
generally  practised  does  not  exclude  and  invalidate  the  administra- 
tion of  the  Sacrament  by  a  different  mode.  Paedobaptism  was  in  use 
before  the  middle  of  the  3d  century,  as  the  testimony  of  Irenaeus, 
Origen,  Fideus,  and  others  shows,''^'*)  and  was  practised  within  the 
congregations.  But  the  Baptism  which  is  most  commonly  mentioned 
and  described  is  the  Baptism  of  adult  proselytes.  Their  Baptism  was 
not  a  matter  of  a  short  ceremony,  but  included  a  number  of  steps, 
commonly  under  three  heads :  christianous  poiein,  katechoumenous 
poiein,  exorkizein,  extending  over  a  certain  length  of  time.  During 
this  season  of  preparation,  the  candidates  were  obliged  to  submit  to 
various  scrutinia,  among  which  may  be  mentioned  the  impositio  ma- 
nuum,  the  oratio  super  electos,  the  gustus  salis,  the  exorcismus,  the 
Ephphatah  ceremony,  the  abrenuntiatio,  and  finally  the  symbolum  or 
confession  of  the  Creed.  The  Baptism  itself  included :  1)  Benedictio 
fontis,  2)  Consecratio  fontis,  3)  Signum  crucis,  4)  Demissio  cerei  in 
aquam,  5)  Infvisio  de  chrismate,  6)  Symbolum,  7)  Immersio,  8)  Sig- 
natur  in  cerebro  de  chrismate,  9)  Datio  Spiritus  septiformis,  10)  Sig- 
natio  in  fronte.465)  It  was  not  long  before  the  ceremonies  of  the  ca- 
techumenate  were  combined  with  those  of  Baptism,  the  usages  Chris- 
tianum  facere,  catechumenum  faeere,  and  exorcizare  taking  place  at 
the  door  or  in  the  atrium,  and  the  ceremonies  of  sabbatorum  die  mane 
with  abrenuntiatio  and  symbolum,  as  well  as  Baptism  proper,  inside 
the  church. 

The  ritual  of  Baptism  remained  practically  unchanged  through- 
out the  Middle  Ages.  According  to  the  Agenda  Moguntinensis  of 
1513,  the  following  parts  belonged  to  the  Ordo  ad  baptizandum  pueros : 
I.  Introduction,  ad  januas  ecelesiae:  Inquiry  after  name.  Small  Exor- 
cism, Sign  of  Cross  and  Prayer,  Gustus  salis  and  Pax  with  Prayer, 
Great  Exorcism,  the  Lessons,  Pater  Noster  with  Ave  Maria  and  Apos- 
tolic Creed,  Ephphata  ceremony,  Entrance  into  church;  II.  Rite  of 
Baptism:  Abrenuntiatio,  Credo,  Anointing  (in  pectore,  inter  scapulas 
in  modum  crucis).  Admonition  to  sponsors.  Baptism  (with  child's 
head  pointing  to  east,  north,  and  south  respectively  at  the  three  in- 
fusions), Prayer  of  Thanksgiving,  Clothing  in  Chrisom  or  White 
Robe.'*^)    A  similar  order  of  baptismal  ceremonies  is  given  by  Hoef- 


464)  Gibbons,  TJie  Faith  of  Our  Fathers,  308.  309. 

465)  Hoefling,  Das  Sakrament  der  Taufe,  I,  450. 

466)  Daniel,  Codex  liturgicus,  I,  183 — 188. 


OCCASIONAL  SACRED  ACTS.  891 

ling.467)  Other  ceremonies  that  were  found  in  some  ordines  were  the 
Kiss  of  Brotherhood  or  Peace,  Placing  of  a  Lighted  Taper  into  the 
Hand  of  the  Child,  and  others.  The  ceremonies  of  the  two  exorcisms, 
the  gustus  salis,  and  the  infusio  de  chrismate,  were  those  whose  sig- 
nificance was  emphasized  very  strongly.  In  fact,  as  Gwynne  says 
(Chapter  XXVIII),  these  ceremonies  became  so  elaborate  as  to  ob- 
scure Baptism  itself. 

In  spite  of  this  fact,  however,  Luther  retained  the  ceremonies  in 
his  first  compilation  of  the  Order  of  Baptism,  for  they  were  not  essen- 
tially wrong  or  damnable.  Luther's  first  attempt  at  a  German  order 
is  his  "Taufbuechlein  verdeutscht"  of  1523.  It  was  in  substance 
nothing  but  a  translation  of  the  liturgy  of  Baptism  as  then  in  use  at 
Wittenberg.  It  contains  the  Small  Exorcism,  Signum  crucis  with 
Prayers,  Gustus  salis  with  "flood"  Prayer,  Large  Exorcism  with 
Prayer  and  Pax,  Lesson  Mark  10.  Lord's  Prayer,  Ephphata  Cere- 
mony, Ingression;  Abrenuntiatio,  Credo,  Act  of  Baptism,  Anointing 
(cross  on  head).  Clothing  with  Chrisom,  Placing  of  Lighted  Taper  in 
Hand.^^)  After  Luther  had  issued  a  second  short  order  or  outline  of 
liturgy  for  Baptism,  in  which  he  omitted  some  of  the  ceremonies 
upon  which  the  Papists  had  placed  so  much  stress,'*^^)  he  came  out  in 
1526  with  an  order  which  discarded  all  the  usages  that  were  in  any 
way  connected  with  superstition.  But  he  retained  the  division  into 
two  parts.  His  order  included :  Small  Exorcism,  Sign  of  Cross 
with  Prayer  for  Mercy  and  "flood"  Prayer,  Large  Exorcism,  Lesson 
from  Mark,  Lord's  Prayer,  Ingression  to  baptismal  font;  Renuncia- 
tion and  Creed,  Act  of  Baptism,  Putting  on  Chrisom,  and  Final 
Prayer.470) 

Most  of  the  Lutheran  Church  Orders  adopted  the  form  of  1526. 
The  Saxon  of  1539  inserted  the  Admonition  to  the  Sponsors  at  the 
beginning  of  the  second  part,*^^)  that  of  Cologne  of  1543  placed  the 
Admonition  to  Parents  and  Sponsors  at  the  beginning  of  the  entire 
ceremony,  concluding  this  on  the  second  day.  Many  forms  soon 
omitted  the  exsufflation,  the  signation,  and  the  exorcism.  They  all 
agree,  however,  in  retaining  the  division  into  two  parts,  and  the  most 
prominent  Church  Orders  have  the  admonition  to  the  sponsors  at  the 
end,  since  it  is  not  an  integral  part  of  the  ceremony.  The  questions 
are  usually  addressed  to  the  child,  the  sponsors  being  expressly  asked 
to  answer  in  the  name  of  the  infant.  The  tendency  in  our  days  is 
toward  abbreviation  of  the  liturgy,    but  it  is  to  be  hoped    that  the 


467)  Das  Sakrament  der  Taufe.  II. 

468)  10,  2136 — 2143;  Sehling,  Die  evangeliachen  Kirchenordnungen  des 
16.  Jahrhunderts,  I.  19.  20. 

469)  10,  2134—2137.  470)   10.  2144—2147. 
471)  Sehling,  I,  266.  267;   Daniel,  II,  208—214. 


392  OCCASIONAL  SACEED  ACTS. 

prayers  and  the  lesson  will  be  retained,  as  well  as  the  introduction, 
not  only  because  they  are  hallowed  by  centuries  of  sacred  associations, 
but  also  because  they  represent  the  most  perfect  efforts  of  our  Church's 
best  liturgiologists.*"2) 

Closely  connected,  liturgically  speaking,  with  the  Sacrament  of 
Baptism  is  the  rite  of  Confirmation.  In  the  early  Church,  Confirma- 
tion was  the  concluding  ceremony  of  the  rites  connected  with  Bap- 
tism, being,  in  effect,  the  acknowledgment  of  the  catechumens  that 
had  been  baptized  during  the  baptismal  seasons  (especially  Easter 
and  Pentecost),  as  full  members  of  the  congregation,  and  entitled  to 
receive  Holy  Communion.  The  rite  of  anointing  and  the  imposition 
of  hands  which  signified  this  public  admission  into  congregation  mem- 
bership later  developed  into  an  independent  ceremony  which  could 
be  performed  by  the  bishop  only.  The  rite  of  Confirmation,  according 
to  the  Pontificale  Romanum,  includes  the  following  parts :  Spiritus 
S.  superveniat.  .  .  .,  Adjutorium  nostrum  .  .  .  .,  Oremus :  Sempiterne 
Omnipotens  .  .  .  .,  Signo  te  signo  crucis  et  confirmo  te  chrismate  sa- 
lutis  .  .  .  .,  (in  maxilla  caedit)  Pax  tecum  .  .  .,  Confirmo  hoc  Deus  .  .  ., 
Ostende  nobis  Domine  .  .  .  .,  Oremus  .  .  .  .,  Benedicat  vos  ....  The 
secondary  liturgical  customs  are:  Clothing  in  white  garments,  gird- 
ling with  zona,  crowning  with  corona  or  cappa,  giving  of  burning 
candle,  lotio  pedum,  giving  of  milk  and  honey,  osculum  pacis.'*^^) 
Confirmation  was  formally  declared  to  be  a  sacrament  at  Lyons  in 
1274  and  at  Florence  in  1439.  Pope  Eugene  IV  (1431 — 47)  confirmed 
the  entire  rite  in  his  bull  *'Exultate." 

To  Luther,  Confirmation  was  at  first  an  abomination,  because  it 
had  been  declared  a  sacrament.  His  opposition  to  it,  which  he  voiced 
in  his  book  "Of  the  Babylonian  Captivity,"  *"*)  permitting  it  to  be 
called  no  more  than  a  "sacramental  ceremony,"  and  expressed  also  in 
a  letter  to  Xicolaus  Hausmann,  dated  March  14,  1524,4"5)  influenced 
his  coworkers,  and  is  found  in  the  Lutheran  confessions.*'^^)  For 
these  reasons,  Luther  did  not  compile  a  form  for  Confirmation,  and 
most  of  the  early  Church  Orders  omit  the  rite  entirely.  At  the  Eatis- 
bon  Colloquium,  Melanchthon,  Bucer,  and  Pistorius  proposed  the 
rite  as  a  good  observance.  In  the  General  Articles  for  Electoral 
Saxony  only  the  thorough  indoctrination  of  the  children  is  urged  be- 


472)  Cp.  Hoefling,  Das  Sakrament  der  Taufe;  Schuette,  Before  the 
Altar,  31 — 37;  Jacobs,  The  Lutheran  Movement  in  England,  Chapter  XXI; 
Loehe,  Haus-,  Schul-  und  Kirchenbuch.  II,  250;  Memoirs,  III:   11. 

473)  Hoefling,  I;   Daniel,  Codex  liturgicus,  I,  200 — 208. 

474)  19.  90.  91.  475)  21a,  600. 

476)  Apologia.  Art.  de  Xumero  et  Usu  Sacramentorum,  §  6; 
Articuli  Smalc.  Tract,  de  Potestate  et  Primatu  Papae,  §  73.  Mueller, 
203.  342. 


OCCASIONAL  SACRED  ACTS.  393 

fore  admitting  them  to  the  Eucharist.  The  Strassburg  Order  of  1534 
has  similar  directions,  that  of  Cassel  of  1539  has  an  Order  for  Con- 
firmation or  Imposition  of  Hands.  The  Wittenberg  Reformation  of 
1545  advocated  an  evangelical  iise  of  the  ceremony.  Chemnitz  de- 
voted an  entire  Locus  to  Confirmation,  mentioning  the  following 
parts:  1)  Indoctrination;  2)  Admonition,  renunciation,  and  confes- 
sion of  faith;  3)  By  catechumen:  personal  profession  of  doctrine  of 
faith;  4)  Thorough  examination;  5)  Admonition  that  this  implies 
dissent  from  all  false  teaching;  6)  Exhortation  to  persevere;  7)  Pub- 
lic prayer.  The  Lutheran  Church  has  adhered  to  these  principles, 
dividing  the  act  of  Confirmation  into  three  parts:  1)  Examination; 
2)  Profession  and  vow;  3)  Prayer  with  imposition  of  hands.*"^^) 

Without  in  any  way  considering  the  fact  that  the  Roman  Church 
introduced  a  number  of  false  doctrines  regarding  Holy  Matrimony, 
the  rite  itself,  as  in  use  at  the  beginning  of  the  16th  century,  was  in 
need  of  revision,  in  order  to  remove  various  false  sentences  and  wrong 
questions.  The  formula  for  the  solemnization  of  holy  marriage  at 
that  time  had  two  parts,  the  rite  of  giving  in  marriage  taking  place 
at  the  door  or  in  the  vestibule,  and  the  Mass  with  sacrifice  for  the 
bridal  couple  in  the  church.  The  Ordo  ad  matrimonium  sollenniter 
celebrandum  of  1587  has  the  following  parts:  1)  Ad  fores  ecclesiae: 
Questions  in  r^ard  to  obstacles  (forbidding  the  bans),  the  act  of 
marriage  with  ring  ceremony  and  prayer;  2)  In  ecclesia:  Mass  with 
prayers  over  the  wedded,  benediction."*"^)  This  is  the  form  which  had 
been  in  use  for  centuries  and,  in  its  essential  parts,  is  in  use  to-day. 

In  his  "Traubuechlein  fuer  die  einfaeltigen  Pfarrherren"  of  1534 
Luther  retained  the  division  of  the  formula  into  two  parts.  After 
the  proclamation  the  act  of  giving  in  marriage  was  performed  '^before 
the  church,"  with  the  ring  ceremony.  In  the  church,  '^before  the  al- 
tar," the  Scripture  lessons  with  regard  to  holy  matrimony  were  read, 
and  the  service  closed  with  benediction  and  prayer.*'')  This  order 
for  the  solemnization  of  holy  matrimony  was  generally  accepted  or 
regarded  as  fundamental.  Some  of  the  Church  Orders,  indeed,  made 
the  bipartite  division  of  the  form  more  prominent  by  having  the  two 
parts  take  place  on  separate  days.  But  the  text  and  the  order  of  the 
several  parts  of  the  formula  remained,  even  after  the  external  division 
was  no  longer  observed  and  the  entire  ceremony  took  place  before  the 
altar.  The  joining  in  matrimony  came  first,  then  the  reading  of  the 
lessons,  and  finally  the  benediction.    Thus  the  orders  of  Calenberg  of 


477)  Cp.  Hoefling,  I  and  II;  Jacobs,  Chapter  XXII;  Memoira,  III: 
2;  Schuette,  38 — 40;  Loehe,  II,  259;  Kliefoth,  Liturgische  Abhandlunffcn, 
HI;  Lehre  und  Wehre,  1905,  Feb.  Mrz;  Horn.  Map.,  1910,  II  ff. 

478)  Daniel,  Codex  Hturgicus,  II,  262—265. 

479)  10,  723—725;   Sehling,  1.  23.  24. 


394  OCCASIONAL  SACRED  ACTS. 

1569,  of  Electoral  Saxony  of  1580,*80)  of  Osnabrueck  of  1588,  and 
others.  The  idea  was  that  the  Word  concerning  the  institution  of 
holy  matrimony  should  follow  the  act  of  joining  in  marriage  in  a 
confirmatory  capacity,  and  the  other  lessons  should  precede  the  bene- 
diction as  fundamental  for  the  proper  understanding  of  the  obliga- 
tions of  marriage.'*^^)  But  since  it  cannot  be  denied  that  there  is  an 
element  of  abruptness  about  the  rite  in  this  form,  aside  from-  the  fact 
that  natural  sequence  of  thought  would  seem  to  demand  that  tHe 
Scriptural  doctrine  be  stated  first,  as  an  introduction  to  the  cere- 
mony, other  Church  Orders  preferred  to  place  the  lessons  first,  then 
the  giving  in  marriage,  then  the  benediction.  This  sequence  seemed 
more  logical  to  the  Order  of  Brandenburg  of  1540,  of  Lueneburg  of 
1598  and  1643,  of  Pommerania  of  1568,  and  of  Wuerttemberg.  In 
America,  the  form  of  questions  to  the  copulands  as  given  by  Luther 
is  generally  employed,  though  the  form  of  the  Book  of  Common 
Prayer,  in  an  abbreviated  wording,  is  also  in  use.**^) 

So  far  as  Ordination  is  concerned,  Luther  could  not  and  would 
not  sanction  the  form  which  was  in  use  for  the  consecration  of  priests 
and  all  other  members  of  the  clergy,  since  it  implied  the  assenting  to 
various  false  and  blasphemous  doctrines.  He  gave  the  reasons  for  his 
position  in  his  book  "Of  the  Babylonian  Captivity."  *^)  la  the 
Smalcald  Articles  he  also  states  the  truth  on  the  basis  of  Scriptures 
and  on  historical  grounds.*^)  For  this  reason,  the  form  of  Ordina- 
tion which  Luther  adopted  and  which  was  used  so  extensively  in  Wit- 
tenberg, had  nothing  in  common  with  the  Roman  ordo  for  the  conse- 
cration of  a  priest.  Luther's  form  is  given  as  follows :  Hymn  Veni 
CJreator  Spiritus ;  Collect ;  the  Lessons  of  Ordination :  Acts  13,  3 ; 
20,  29;  1  Tim.  3, 1  ff. ;  Titus  1.  6;  Qpestions  addressed  to  the  ordinand; 
Admonition  and  Lord's  Prayer;  Prayer  and  Benediction;  Hymn  Xun 
bitten  -wir  den  Heilgen  Geist.^^s)  The  essential  features  of  this  form 
have  been  included  in  most  Lutheran  formulas,  the  only  difference 
being  that  the  questions  to  the  ordinand  are  longer  and  enumerate 
more  of  the  pastor's  duties.  Li  many  formulas  an  admonition  ad- 
dressed to  the  congregation  is  included,  since  an  ordination  or  instal- 
lation offers  the  best  opportunity  for  broaching  this  subject  and  deal- 
ing with  it  more  extensively  than  is  done  upon  other  occasions.*^) 


480)  Sehling.  I.  366.  367. 

481)  Kliefoth,  Liturgische  Abhandlungen,  I,  95. 

482)  Cp.  Kliefoth,  Liturgische  Ahhandlungen.  I;    Loehe,  11,  86.  272; 
tschuette.  65—71;  Jacobs,  Chapter  XXII. 

483)  19,  109.  344.  484)   Mueller,  342. 

485)  22,  647;    Agenda  of  M'ittenberg  of  1565;    Daniel,  II,   517—522; 
Kliefoth,  Liturgische  Abhandlungen.  I,  462.  463. 

486)  Cp.  Schuette,  40.  41;  Loehe,  H,  292;  Kliefoth,  I;  Sehling,  1,26. 


SYMBOLISM  OF  CDLTDS.  395 

There  are  numerous  other  liturgical  acts  for  which  forms  have 
been  compiled,  such  as  the  Visitation  of  the  Sick,  the  Burial  of  the 
Dead,  the  Dedication  of  Churches,  Schools,  Organs,  Bells,  Altars  and 
other  Church  Furniture,  Cemeteries,  Anniversaries  of  Marriage,  In- 
stallation of  Church  Officers,  and  many  others,  for  which  the  various 
Church  Books  and  Agenda  give  appropriate  and  simple  forms.  The 
principle  which  governs  every  form  of  dedication  is  this  that  the  use 
of  Scripture  consecrates  and  hallows  all  acts  of  this  kind,  and  that 
every  form  of  superstition  and  false  doctrine  must  be  kept  away  from 
things  which  are  intended  for  the  use  of  worship  in  the  churches. 
The  words  of  the  apostle:  "Let  all  things  be  done  unto  edifying.  .  . 
Let  all  things  be  done  decently  and  in  order,"  1  Cor.  14,  26.  40;  "It  is 
sanctified  by  the  Word  of  God  and  prayer,"  1  Tim.  4,  5,  must  govern 
all  these  acts,  so  that  their  proper  execution  may  redound  to  the  glory 
of  God  and  the  edification  of  the  Church. 


CHAPTER  4. 
The  Symbolism  of  the  Lutheran  Cultus. 

Divine  worship  in  the  Christian  Church  is  not  an  adiaphoron. 
The  Lord  expressly  commands  that  His  Word  be  heard,  John  8,  47. 
He  has  only  severe  censure  for  those  who  forsake  the  Christian  as- 
semblies, Heb.  10,  25.  He  expressly  enjoins  public  prayer,  1  Tim.  2, 
1.  2.  8.  He  graciously  promises  His  divine  presence  at  such  assem- 
blies, Matt.  18,  20.  He  records  with  approval  the  public  services  of 
the  early  Christians,  Acts  2,  42 — 47. 

But  though  He  has  prescribed  the  general  content  oi  public  wor- 
ship, though  He  is  present  in  the  sacramental  acts  of  divine  service, 
declaring  and  appropriating  to  the  believers  the  means  of  grace,  and 
though  He  graciously  receives  the  sacrificial  acts  of  the  assembled 
congregation,  in  qonfession  and  prayer  and  offerings,  He  has  not 
commanded  a  definite  form  or  order  of  divine  service.  It  ^  a  matter 
of  Christian  liberty  whether  a  congregation  wishes  one  or  many  pray- 
ers, one  or  several  hymns,  one  or  two  sermons  or  homilies,  whether 
the  chief  assembly  be  held  in  the  morning  or  in  the  evening,  whether 
the  service  be  held  an  Sunday  or  on  a  ferial  day. 

To  arg^ue  from  these  facts,  however,  that  it  is  a  matter  of  com- 
plete indifference  as  to  how  the  form  of  Christian  worship  is  consti- 
tuted would  be  bringing  liberty  dangerously  near  to  license.  Tho 
Lord  says :  "Let  all  things  be  done  decently  and  in  order,"  1  Cor.  14, 
40 ;  and  again :  "Let  all  things  be  done  unto  edifying,"  v.  26.  It  can- 
not really  be  a  matter  of  indifiFerence  to  a  Christian  congregation 


396  SYMBOLISM  OF  OULTUS. 

when  the  order  of  service  used  in,  her  midst  shows  so  much  similarity 
to  a  heterodox  order  as  to  confuse  visitors.  One  may  hardly  argue 
that  such  adiaphora  do  not  matter  one  way  or  the  other,  when  it  has 
happened  that  a  weak  brother  has  been  offended.  And  a  Lutheran 
congregation  cannot  justly  divorce  herself,  not  only  not  from  the  doc- 
trinal, but  also  not  from  the  historical  side  of  its  Church.  It  is  a 
matter  of  expediency,  as  well  as  of  charity  and  edification,  that  every 
Lutheran  pastor  and  every  Lutheran  congregation  have  outward  sig- 
nificant symbols  of  the  inner  union,  of  the  one  mind  and  the  one  spirit. 

In  addition  to  these  facts,  there  is  the  further  consideration  that 
the  outward  acts  of  the  Church,  commonly  known  by  the  appellation 
"the  liturgy,"  have  a  very  definite  significance,  which,  in  many  cases, 
renders  the  acts  of  public  service  true  acts  of  confession  of  faith. 
And  the  symbolism  of  many  of  the  Lutheran  sacred  acts,  if  correctly 
performed,  is  such  that  the  beauty  of  these  treasures  of  our  Church 
may  be  brought  to  the  joyful  attention  of  our  congregations. 

This  is  true  especially  of  the  morning  worship  in  the  Lutheran 
Church,  commonly  known  as  The  Service  or  The  Communion.  For 
this  is  not,  as  some  people  have  supposed,  a  haphazard  combination 
or  a  fortuitous  conglomeration  of  heterogeneous  material,  but  an  ar- 
tistic unit  with  definite  and  logical  parts,  a  "spirituo-psychological, 
well-ordered,  and  articulated  whole,"  as  Lochner  says.^^")  The  order 
of  service  is  a  beautiful  work  of  art,  presenting  a  gradual  climax  of 
such  wonderful  dignity  and  impressiveness  that  the  mere  presence  in 
such  a  service  should  result  in  the  edification  of  the  faithful. 

The  service  opens  most  appropriately  with  the  Confession  of  sins. 
There  is  no  better  explanation  of  this  preparatory  step  than  that 
given  by  Avigustine  In  enarratione  ad  Psalm.  CXIX,  when  he  writes : 
"Intrate  in  portas  eius  in  confessione.  Li  portis  initium  est;  a  con- 
fessione  incipite.  Unde  in  alio  psalmo  dicitur:  Licipite  Domino  in 
confessione.  Et  quia?  Quum  iam  intraverimus  non  confitebimur? 
Semper  confitere ;  semper  habes  quod  confitearis."  *^)  Having  made 
his  confession  and  having  been  given  the  first  assurance  of  the  for- 
giveness of  God,  the  believer  enters  into  the  Lord's  presence. 

He  is  now  greeted  by,  and,  in  most  cases,  takes  part  in,  the  Li- 
troit  of  the  day.  It  makes  him  acquainted  with  the  special  character 
and  idea  of  the  day,  and  he  answers  with  the  Gloria  Patri,  the  confes- 
sion of  the  coeternal  Godhead  of  our  Lord  and  the  Holy  Ghost  with 
the  Father. 

Standing  now  within  the  portals  of  the  temple,  the  congregation 
lifts  up  its  voice  in  the  Kyrie.     This  has  been  explained  as  follows: 


487)  Der  Hauptaottesdienst,  41. 

488)  Daniel,  Codex  liturgicus,  I,  23. 


SYMBOLISM  OF  CULTUS.  397 

"The  congregation,  realizing  its  infirmity  from  indwelling  sin,  calls 
upon  God  for  that  grace  which  has  been  announced  and  oflFered  in  the 
Introit."  <89)  Since,  however,  such  a  confession  at  this  point  would 
interrupt  the  sequence  of  thought  in  the  service,  it  is  preferable  to 
say  with  Horn  *^)  that  "the  Kyrie  is  not  specifically  a  confession  of 
sin,  but  a  cry  of  need,"  and  with  Lochner^^i),  that  the  Kyrie  is  the 
common,  humble  confession  of  the  entire  misery  and  woe  of  the 
human  race,  on  account  of  which  God's  only-begotten  Son  became 
man.  For  this  wonderful  deed  Christ  and  the  entire  Godhead  is  then 
greeted  and  proclaimed  in  the  Gloria  in  excelsis,  the  angels'  hymn  of 
glory,  sung  for  the  first  time  at  Bethlehem  and  in  use  in  the  Church 
since  the  time  of  Hilarius  Pictaviensis. 

The  words  of  humble  entreaty  and  petition  having  now  been 
spoken,  and  the  sinner  having  been  greeted  with  the  assurance  that 
his  sins  are  fully  and  completely  forgiven  in  and  through  Christ,  to 
whom  he  has  given  joyful  homage  and  adoration,  he  now  joins  with 
the  entire  congregation  in  the  Collect,  It  will  be  well  to  quote  Cal- 
voer  here,  who  writes  of  this  prayer:  "Praemittere  solet  sacerdos 
collectis:  Oremus!  Excitatur  hoc  ipso  fidelis  populus  ad  comprecan- 
dum  devote,  neque  hoc  solum,  sed  ut  populus  quoque  sciat,  quae  sint 
sua  et  quae  sint  sacerdotis  solius  partes,  ut  quando  simul  orare, 
quando  vero  sacerdotis  functionibus  in  sacro  silentio  attendere  debeat. 
Legit  enim  minister  ecclesiae,  concionatur,  consecrat  eucharistiam, 
distribuit  earn  accedente  verbo  ad  elementum,  dimittit  ecclesiam  cum 
benedictione,  in  quibus  coetus  collectus  non  tam  se  habet  active  quam 
passive,  non  simul  haec  talia  cum  ministro  peragens,  sed  recipiens 
haec  sacra  potius  ab  eodem,  ipsa  sacerdotalia  mera  relinquens.  At  in 
collectis,  quum  sint  totius  collectae  aut  coetus  preces,  jimgit  suam 
operam  populus ;  quae  cum  omnia  rite  ac  ordine  i)eraguntur,  acclamat 
sacerdos  populo:  Oremus  !"*92)  Jt  jg  therefore  entirely  correct  for 
an  old  Agenda  to  explain:  "CoUecta  dicitur  oratio,  in  qua  sacerdos 
totius  populi  vel  ecclesiae  necessitates  et  pericula,  seu  vota  et  desi- 
deria,  quasi  collecta,  Deo  repraesentat ;  unde  dicit:  Oremus,  quasi 
adstantes  invitet  ad  banc  orationem  adjunctis  votis  animisque  facien- 
dam."  The  Collect  also  serves  to  concentrate  the  thought  of  the 
Epistle  and  Gospel. 

For  now  the  Lord  comes  to  the  congr^ation  in  His  Word.  Li 
the  Epistle,  which  contains  primarily  doctrine  and  admonition.  His 
apostles  address  the  faithful,  and  in  the  Gospel  the  great  signs  and 
miracles  of  our  Lord  are  proclaimed,  or  He  speaks  to  us  in  His  own 


489)  Explanation  of  the  Common  Service,  27.  28. 

490)  Liturgies,  61.  491)  L.  c,  111. 

492)  In  Kliefoth,  Die  urspruengliche  Oottesdienatordnung,  V,  29. 


398  SYMBOLISM  OF  CULTUS. 

words.  Very  properly,  therefore,  the  congregation  stands  before  Him 
in  meek  and  humble  devotion,  responding  to  the  Epistle  with  the 
Hallelujah  or  a  hymn  embodying  the  great  Gospel-news  of  the  day, 
and  to  the  Gospel  with  the  recital  of  the  Creed  in  chorus. 

Having  thus  publicly  stated  their  acceptance  of  the  truth  of  God's 
Word,  the  faithful  are  prepared  for  the  next  great  part  of  the  service, 
the  Sermon,  with  its  application  of  the  doctrines  contained  in  the 
lessons  de  tempore  to  their  hearts  and  minds.  It  is  the  first  part  of 
the  great  climax  of  the  service,  the  recital  of  the  wonderful  deeds  of 
God  for  the  salvation  of  fallen  mankind  or  the  earnest  admonition  of 
the  faithful  to  lead  lives  commensurate  with  the  exalted  state  of  the 
elect  of  Christ.  The  congregation  answers  with  the  Offertory  or  Of- 
fering, accepting  the  doctrines  that  have  been  proclaimed,  and  vowing 
faithfulness  to  the  Lord  with  all  their  heart  and  soul. 

It  is  a  mistake  to  assume,  with  Kliefoth,  that  The  Service  is 
properly  divided  into  the  sacramental  act  of  the  Word  and  that  of 
the  Communion.  The  old  Lutheran  liturgists  very  properly  called 
the  whole  service  The  Communion,  and  though  the  celebration  of  the 
Lord's  Supper  is,  in  a  way,  the  culmination  of  the  service,  since  only 
the  actual  adult  members  of  the  church  are  permitted  to  partake  of 
the  heavenly  meal,  yet  the  means  of  grace  are  on  the  same  level.  The 
Eucharist  is  the  second  part  of  the  great  climax.  The  audible  Word 
is  supplemented  by  the  visible  Word.  The  faithful  having  received 
the  assurance  of  the  grace  of  God  in  the  sermon,  they  now  become 
partakers  of  that  meal  in  which  assurance  is  made  doubly  sure,  being 
supplemented  by  the  body  and  blood  of  the  Savior,  sacramentally 
received. 

This  miracle  requires  adequate  preparation,  and  so,  after  tlie 
conclusion  of  the  Church  Prayer,  which  is  made  from  the  altar  as  the 
place  of  prayer,  the  faithful  lift  up  their  hearts  in  a  prayer  of  thanks- 
giving, the  Eucharistic  Prayer,  for  God's  unspeakable  mercies.  The 
prayer  is  followed  by  one  of  the  most  impressive  hymns  of  praise,  the 
Holy,  Holy,  Holy.  The  Consecration  having  been  introduced  with 
the  Lord's  Prayer  and  consummated  with  the  Words  of  the  Institu- 
tion, the  administration  of  the  Holy  Supper  takes  place,  while  the 
congregation  devoutly  sings  the  Agnus  Dei. 

And  now  the  believer,  having  received  the  final  assurance  of  par- 
don, joins  with  the  congregation  in  the  joyful  hymn  of  Simeon: 
"Lord,  now  lettest  Thou  Thy  servant  depart  in  peace."  He  prays 
with  a  thankful  heart  for  strength  to  live  as  it  becometh  a  disciple  of 
Christ,  and,  having  received  the  blessing  of  the  Lord,  goes  back  to 
his  home  rejoicing  in  the  fruits  of  his  salvation. 

Just  as  the  Service,  however,  is  thus  a  beautiful  and  harmonious 


SYMBOLISM  OF  CULTUS.  399 

unit,  with  a  symbolism  whose  full  significance  is  unknown  to,  or  not 
appreciated  by,  the  majority  of  the  church-goers,  because  they  have 
never  been  made  acquainted  with  it,  so  also  other  acta  of  worship 
performed  in  the  church  have  a  meaning,  which  should  be  brought 
out  by  the  ministrant.  Properly  interpreted  and  correctly  under- 
stood, they  become. a  source  of  pleasure  to  the  congregation  present, 
instead  of  wearying  by  the  monotony  of  frequent  repetition. 

When  Luther  wrote  his  "Taufbuechleiri  verdeutscht,"  in  the  year 
1523,  he  very  properly  retained  the  form  in  general  use  in  the  church, 
since  the  ceremonies  prescribed  in  the  various  agendas  were  not  in 
themselves  wrong.  The  outward  ceremonies,  including  the  exorcism, 
the  administration  of  salt,  the  Ephphatha-ceremony,  and  others,  have 
since  been  omitted,  but  the  text  has  been  retained  almost  in  its  en- 
tirety. Thus  also  the  symbolism  of  the  form  may  well  be  preserved. 
Since  ancient  times  the  ceremony  of  baptism  was  divided  into  two 
parts.  The  renunciation  and  the  profession  of  faith  took  place  in  the 
vestibule,  "ad  januas  ecclesiae."  Most  of  the  English  parish  churches 
had  north  and  south  porches,  which  were  used  for  this  part  of  the 
ceremony.  When  the  words  had  been  spoken,  "The  Lord  preserve  thy 
going  out  and  thy  coming  in  from  this  time  forth  and  even  forever- 
more,"  the  celebrant,  preceding  the  sponsors  with  the  child,  came  into 
the  church,  where  the  rite  of  baptism  was  administered  at  the  font, 
which  stood  near  the  entrance. 

We  still  have  the  division  of  the  act  of  baptism  into  two  parts, 
and  might  well  indicate  the  symbolism  of  the  rite.  The  pastor  may 
meet  the  sponsors  with  the  child  at  the  foot  of  the  chancel-steps, 
where  the  first  part  of  the  sacred  act  takes  place.  When  the  blessing 
of  entrance  has  been  spoken,  the  pastor  should  lead  the  siwnsors  with 
the  child  to  the  font,  where  the  Sacrament  is  administered.  Thus 
the  symbolism  is  preserved.  The  child,  having  been  bom  under  the 
curse  of  inherited  sin,  and  therefore  subject  to  eternal  death  and 
damnation,  is  brought  to  the  place  where  the  mercy  of  God  is  dis- 
pensed in  the  means  of  grace.  It  is  welcomed  at  the  entrance  of  the 
chancel,  and  then  taken  into  the  place  where  the  Lord  of  mercy  gives 
the  blessings  of  the  Gospel  through  baptism,  thus  signifying  its  ad- 
mission into  the  communion  of  the  congregation. 

The  form  of  the  marriage  ceremony  is  similarly  indicative  of  the 
doctrinal  position  of  the  Lutheran  Church.  According  to  Luther's 
"Traubuechlein  fuer  die  einfaeltigen  Pfarrherren"  of  1534,  the  mar- 
riage ceremony  was  divided  into  two  parts.  The  rite  proper,  the  giv- 
ing into  wedlock,  took  place  in  the  vestibule,  "vor  der  Kirchen." 
Then  the  procession  moved  to  the  altar,  where  the  reading  of  the  les- 
sons and  the  benediction  were  rendered.     The    symbolism    of    this 


400  SYMBOLISM  OF  CULTUS, 

original  form,  if  applied  to-day,  is  immediately  apparent.  Marriage 
is  a  thing  of  this  world  and  is  primarily  under  the  jurisdiction  of  the 
State,  "ein  weltlich,  irdisch  Ding,"  as  Luther  so  often  points  out. 
This  fact  is  brought  out  by  the  rubric,  according  to  which  the  rite  of 
joining  in  wedlock  was  performed  in  the  vestibule,  in  the  porch,  or 
before  the  doors.  The  solemnization  and  blessing-  of  the  marriage  is, 
however,  a  matter  of  the  church,  and  therefore  takes  place  at  the  altar. 

There  is  another  circumstance  to  which  attention  should  be  called. 
According  to  the  understanding  of  Scriptures,  a  valid  betrothal  is 
tantamount  to  a  marriage  in  foro  ecclesiae.  It  is  far  better,  there- 
fore, and  liturgically  the  one  correct  thing,  to  have  the  bride  and 
groom  come  to  the  altar  together,  to  emphasize  this  fact.  The  form 
according  to  which  the  groom  awaits  the  bride-to-be  at  the  altar  can- 
not be  defended  in  a  Lutheran  church. 

The  original  symbolism  of  the  sacred  act  may  also  be  retained, 
even  in  our  days.  K  there  be  an  address  by  the  pastor,  he  should 
meet  the  young  people  at  the  lowest  step  of  the  chancel  and  perform 
the  joining  in  wedlock  there.  After  that  he  should  proceed  to  the 
altar,  read  the  lessons,  and  pronomice  the  blessing  over  the  bride  and 
groom  at  the  step  of  the  altar.  In  case  there  be  no  address,  the  les- 
sons ought  to  precede  the  act  of  marriage,  which  takes  place  at  the 
entrance  to  the  sanctuary,  while  the  benediction  is  pronounced  in  the 
chancel,  at  the  step  of  the  altar. 

If  space  permitted,  much  might  be  said  in  regard  to  other  occa- 
sional acts  according  to  the  beautiful  forms  of  the  Lutheran  Church. 
Many  a  church  dedication  is  spoiled  by  the  fact  that  the  symbolism 
of  the  rite  was  not  brought  out  or  that  Roman  superstitions  were  un- 
wittingly introduced.  It  may  also  be  well  to  consider  whether,  per- 
haps, it  would  not  be  better  to  have  the  ordination  take  place,  when- 
ever this  is  possible,  in  the  midst  of  the  congregation  or  mission  field 
which  the  ordinand  is  to  serve,  to  emphasize  the  fact  that  the  call 
makes  the  pastor  and  avoid  the  suspicion  as  though  we  held  the  doc- 
trine of  the  character  indelibilis.'*^^) 


493)  Cp.  Kliefoth,  Liturgische  Abhandlungen,  I;  Die  urspruengliche 
Gottesdienstordnung,  V,  25.  26.  42.  50;  SynodalbericM,  Nebr.,  1898.  1903; 
Lochner,  Der  Hauptgottesdienst;  Loehe,  Agende,  Vorwort. 


DECOBUM  OF  THE  PA8T0B.  401 

CHAPTER  5. 
Liturgical  Decorum  of  the  Pastor. 

The  questions  which  we  broach  in  this  chapter  are  not  a  matter 
of  indifference  to  the  conscientious,  faithful  pastor.  Decorum  is  a 
thing  which  few  of  us,  if  any,  can  afford  to  disregard.  There  are  not 
many  of  us  that  do  not  know  of  instances  where  the  mannerisxns  of 
a  certain  minister  impaired  the  entire  performance  of  his  work  be- 
fore the  congregation.  It  may  be  permissible  for  a  genius  to  have 
his  own  fads  and  fancies,  and  people  will  bear  with  oddities  for  the 
sake  of  the  general  excellence  of  his  ministry,  but  we  are  by  no  means 
all  geniuses,  and  therefore  our  actions  must  largely  be  governed  by 
a  decent  respect  for  the  opinions  of  mankind. 

The  fact  that  a  pastor  is  obliged  to  perform  the  work  of  a  litur- 
gist  presupposes  that  he  be  familiar  with  liturgical  dress  for  himself 
and  his  church.  As  soon  as  pastors  and  organists  will  go  to  the  de- 
lightful trouble  of  informing  themselves  as  to  liturgical  tradition  and 
interpretation,  and  will  be  willing  to  impart  this  information  to  the 
congregation,  an  impetus  will  be  given  to  Lutheran  liturgical  con- 
sciousness whose  importance  will  be  most  far-reaching.  It  is  not  only 
that  the  colored  vestments  and  the  various  linen  coverings  are  very 
beautiful  and  most  conducive  to  a  visual,  vivid  i)ortrayal  of  the  church 
year  in  its  large  divisions,  but  there  is  also  another  good  feature. 
A  imiformity  of  liturgical  custom  in  our  churches,  also  in  this  re- 
spect, would  beautify  the  services,  satisfy  the  inherent  ritualistic  ten- 
dencies of  the  people,  and  incidentally  do  a  great  deal  toward  creating 
a  consciousness  of  unity.  While  it  remeains  unalterably  true  that  it 
is  the  substance  upon  which  all  depends,  it  is  no  less  true  that  the 
beauty  of  the  dress  in  which  the  substance  is  offered  has  a  good  deal 
to  do  with  the  appeal  to  the  intellect  and  to  the  hearts  of  men. 

Tlie  liturgical  crimes  that  are  perpetrated  in  the  name  of  sacred 
art  are  entirely  inexcusable.  Every  pastor  should  be  acquainted  with 
the  purpose  of  each  sacred  vessel,  including  the  burse  and  the  palla, 
and  he  should  be  just  as  familiar  with  the  proper  vestments  for  altar, 
pulpit,  and  lectern.  The  indiscriminate  draperies  found  in  many 
churches,  in  all  kinds  of  nondescript  or  unliturgical  colors  reflect 
sadly  upon  the  knowledge  of  ecclesiastical  art  in  our  Church.  The 
proper  seasonal  colors  are  green,  violet,  red,  white,  and  black,  and  any 
first-class  dry-goods  store  in  a  large  city  will  be  able  to  procure  a  good 
silk  damask  in  the  proper  shades.  The  pastor  should  furnish  a  calen- 
dar for  the  proper  change  of  vestments  for  the  use  either  of  the  jani- 
tor or  the  Altar  Guild.  In  some  churches  even  the  fact  that  the 
white  linen  cloth  over  the  mensa  should  be  in  use  at  all  seasons  of 
the  year  seems  to  be  imknown.  And  the  Eucharistic  cloths  are  either 
Kretzmaan,  CbrisUan  Art  86 


402  DECORUM  OP  THE  PASTOR. 

conspifeuous  by  their  absence  or  otherwise  torn,  mutilated,  or  —  what 
is  worse  —  dirty.  There  is  no  excuse  for  this.  Some  one  in  the  con- 
gregation, preferably  an  Altar  Guild  should  have  charge  of  this,  tm- 
der  the  supervision  of  the  pastor,  in  order  that  the  proper  cloths  are 
in  proper  condition.  Trifles  make  perfection,  said  Michaelangelo,  but 
perfection  is  no  trifle. 

The  pastor's  own  dress  for  officiating  in  church  is  also  not  a  mat- 
ter of  indifference.  The  heterogeneous  array  of  pulpit  gowns  that 
might  be  assembled  from  a  number  of  Lutheran  churches  in  a  district 
would  serve  as  a  fine  object  lesson.  So  far  as  materials  are  concerned, 
it  is  true,  of  course,  that  there  may  be  a  difference.  The  finest  silk 
warp  henrietta  and  nun's  veiling  is  priced  so  high  that  a  poor  pastor 
cannot  afford  it,  and  silk,  which  is  also  not  cheap,  is  correct  only  for 
doctors'  gowns.  But  even  if  a  pastor  can  afford  only  serge,  he  can 
insist  upon  having  his  gown  made  after  an  approved  pattern.  The 
Intercollegiate  Bureau  and  Registry  of  Academic  Costiime  will 
cheerfully  answer  any  questions  with  regard  to  the  proper  gown, 
either  for  pulpit  use  or  for  the  holder  of  any  academic  degree.  Then 
there  are  the  bands,  the  remnant  of  the  ancient  peritrachelium,  in- 
dicating that  the  wearer  is  an  ordained  pastor  and  may  administer 
the  Sacraments.  Their  use  should  not  be  discontinued,  but  it  would 
certainly  be  best  to  have  a  uniform  style.  They  may  be  made  of  the 
finest  linen,  six  (or  eight)  inches  long,  and  two  inches  wide,  and  may 
be  hem-stitched  and  ornamented  with  a  small  cross.  All  other  em- 
broidery is  out  of  place  in  the  bands. 

The  pastor  should  be  very  careful  about  having  his  vestaients  on 
properly  and  buttoned  or  hooked  correctly,  also  the  bands  clean  and 
adjusted  so  that  they  are  in  the  center.  Any  slouchiness  in  dress  or 
appearance  will  draw  the  attention  of  the  audience  to  the  person  of 
the  liturgist,  and  this  should  be  avoided  by  all  means,  since  the  litur- 
gist  should  efface  himself  when  officiating  at  the  altar. 

It  seems  almost  superfluous  to  mention  that  the  pastor  must  be 
thoroughly  familiar  with  the  liturgy,  not  only  for  the  usual  Sundays, 
but  also  for  extraordinary  occasions.  Any  hesitation  or  stumbling 
will  mar  the  easy  flow  of  the  service  and  caU  attention  to  the  unpre- 
paredness  of  the  liturgist.  Only  when  a  perfect  liturgy  is  j)erfectly 
used  is  the  result  truly  edifying.  A  knowledge,  not  only  of  the  right 
forms,  but,  at  least  to  some  extent,  of  the  history  of  liturgies,  is  there- 
fore essential  for  proper  liturgical  deportment.  The  preparation  of 
the  liturgist  will  consist  also  in  this  that  he  understands  the  rubrics, 
for  liturgical  accuracy  demands  a  perfect  and  consistent  following  of 
the  rubrics.  Only  if  the  liturgy  in  all  its  parts  is  perfectly  understood 
and  thus  used,  will  it  prove  uplifting  also  for  the  pastor.    Above  all. 


DECORUM  OF  THE  PASTOR.  403 

the  liturgist  must  be  prepared  in  advance  in  order  that  he  may  not 
change,  at  his  own  discretion,  the  prescribed  form.  Liturgical  pray- 
ers should  not  be  extemporaneous,  and  an  attempt  to  compose  prayers 
before  the  congregation  will  usually  be  a  shame  and  an  impertinence. 
The  chaste  and  Scriptural  forms  of  our  collects  and  church  prayers, 
hallowed  with  the  worship  of  ages,  should  be  retained  by  all  means. 
The  same  is  true  of  other  liturgical  forms.  The  ancient  responsories 
and  formularies,  especially  the  Apostolic  Benediction,  should  not  be 
mutilated  by  additions  or  transcriptions.  The  garbled  use  of  Scrip- 
tural formulas.  Dr.  Krauss  rightly  says,*^^)  is  exasperating. 

The  preparation  of  a  liturgist  for  a  service  includes  something 
more.  He  is  to  officate  in  the  chancel,  and  therefore  should  see  that 
everything  is  in  place  and  in  order  before  services  begin.  It  hap- 
pened in  a  communion  service  recently  that  the  chalice  had  been  for- 
gotten in  preparing  the  altar,  and  the  officiating  pastor  was  obliged 
to  use  a  glass  goblet  in  distributing  the  wine.  Therefore  the  pastor 
will  see  that  everything  needed  during  worship  is  in  place.  He  will 
usually  order  the  wafers  and  the  wine  himself,  to  be  sure  that  the 
right  quantity  and  quality  are  there.  When  the  number  of  commu- 
nicants is  exceptionally  large  and  the  number  of  flagons  is  insufficient 
to  hold  all  the  wine,  he  will  provide  other  silver  vessels,  in  order  to 
avoid  the  use  of  bottles  on  the  altar.  The  aesthetic  sense  of  more 
than  one  commimicant  has  been  jarred  by  seeing  the  pastor  pour  the 
communion  wine  from  bottles  during  services  —  with  a  gargling  noise. 
It  is  also  a  matter  of  wisdom,  even  if  sanitary  reasons  do  not  comi)el 
it,  to  have  special  cloths  for  both  paten  and  chalice.  With  all  due 
care,  the  hands  of  the  administrant  will  sometimes  touch  the  lips  of 
communicants,  and  it  is  best  to  remove  even  a  trace  of  moisture  on 
the  fingers.  And  so  far  as  the  distribution  of  wine  is  concerned, 
where  it  has  not  been  found  necessary  to  introduce  the  individual  cup 
(which  should  be  resorted  to  only  in  extremities),  it  is  best  to  keep 
a  number  of  small  squares  of  antiseptic  gauze  on  hand,  in  order  that 
the  cup  may  be  wiped  out  along  the  rim  after  three  or  four  commu- 
nicants have  received  the  wine.  It  is  self-evident,  also,  that  the  ad- 
ministrant will  slowly  turn  the  chalice  while  distributing  the  wine. 

Other  matters  that  require  the  attention  of  the  liturgist  before 
the  service  are  the  marking  of  the  lessons  and  placing  the  Bible  on 
the  lectern,  in  order  that  no  time  be  consumed  in  paging  over  the 
sacred  Book,  the  putting  of  all  papers  used  during  the  service  within 
easy  reach,  and  otherwise  getting  the  chancel  in  order.  All  service 
books  shall  be  accessible  at  all  times  and  in  the  place  where  the  pastor 


494)  Memoirs,  V:  2. 


404  DECOBUM  OF  THE  PASTOR. 

happens  to  be  officiating.  No  hesitation,  no  disagreeable  pauses  should 
mar  the  easy  flow  of  worship. 

A  word  is  also  necessary  with  regard  to  personal  habits  before 
the  altar.  'TDo  not  make  your  toilet  in  public.  Attend  to  your  ears, 
nose,  eyes,  teeth,  in  the  privacy  of  your  own  room.  Scratch  your 
head  with  your  comb  or  fingers  all  you  please,  —  but  never  do  so  in 
public.  Use  your  sacristy  for  these  things,  but  not  your  pulpit.  ,  .  . 
You  should  never  need,  or  use,  artificial  perfumes.  Particularly  in 
the  sick-room  or  in  the  public  service  your  breath  should  not  smell  of 
tobacco  or  liquor."  ^^^) 

When  the  service  opens,  it  is  best  for  the  pastor,  especially  if  the 
duties  connected  with  public  worship  tend  to  make  him  nervous,  to 
become  so  completely  absorbed,  with  his  whole  personality,  in  the 
business  at  hand,  that  he  loses  all  self-consciousness  and  becomes  en- 
tirely the  "minister  of  the  Lord."  When  approaching  the  altar,  do  not 
swagger  leisurely  as  in  a  sense  of  officiousness  on  the  one  hand,  or, 
on  the  other,  do  not  hastily  strut  about  as  if  in  a  nervous  excitability. 
Since  you  are  here  handling  divine  things,  let  yourself  be  as  incon- 
spicuous and  your  actions  as  unnoticeable  as  possible.  .  .  Avoid  any 
action  that  may  interfere  with  the  devotional  spirit  of  the  congrega- 
tion assembled.  Proper  decorum  before  the  altar  is,  I  believe,  pos- 
sible only  if  at  all  times  and  everywhere  the  minister  exercises  watch- 
ful discipline  over  himself,  and  when,  in  the  act  of  ministering  divine 
things,  he  concentrates  his  mind,  not  on  himself  and  his  audience, 
but  on  his  work,  the  business  before  him.*^^) 

In  a  Lutheran  church,  the  symbolism  is  better  preserved  if  the 
pastor  does  not  occupy  a  chair  in  the  chancel.  He  has  his  place  be- 
fore  the  altar,  at  the  lectern,  at  the  font,  on  the  pulpit,  only  when  the 
part  of  the  service  requires  his  presence  there,  when  he  is  actually 
employed  in  the  administration  of  the  means  of  grace.  During  the 
singing  of  hymns,  the  liturgist  has  no  more  right  in  the  sanctuary 
than  any  other  member  of  the  congregation.  He  may  either  with- 
draw to  the  sacristy,  or  sit  with  the  congregation,  or  have  sedilia 
placed  at  the  entrance  to  the  chancel. 

The  movements  of  the  liturgist,  his  coming  and  going,  must  be 
as  inconspicuous  as  possible,  without,  however,  letting  him  appear,  at 
any  time,  quam  deus  ex  machina.  A  vicious  fault  is  that  indulged  in 
by  some  pastors  when  they  leisurely  look  over  the  congregation  dur- 
ing any  part  of  the  liturgy.  Such  a  survey  makes  even  friends  of  the 
pastor  squirm,  mentally  and  physically. 

In  the  liturgical  reading,  there  should  be  no  injection  of  the 
dramatic  element,  but  it  should  be  done  intelligibly,  with  proper  in- 


495)  Theol.  Quart.,  XXI,  226.  496)  L.  c,  226. 


ORGAN  MUSIC  IN  CHUBCH  SERVICES.  405 

flection  aiid  emphasis,  not  with  exasperating  monotony  or  in  the  tone 
of  one  racing  against  time.  During  the  lessons  and  liturgical  pray- 
ers, the  liturgist  should  not  look  up  from  the  page.  In  the  sacrificial 
part  of  the  service,  there  should  be  no  sanctimonious  turning  up  of 
the  eyes  to  the  ceiling.  A  matter  which  cannot  be  emphasized  too 
often  is  this  that  the  pastor  should  face  the  i)eople  in  all  sacramental 
functions,  and  the  altar  in  all  sacrificial  parts.  The  call:  Let  us 
pray,  will  of  course  be  addressed  to  the  congr^ation,  but  the  collect 
following  is  prayed  in  the  name  of  the  congregation,  with  the  assem- 
bly. When  the  introit  is  a  prayer,  it  is  read  facing  the  altar,  when 
it  is  a  call  of  rejoicing  or  an  admonition,  it  is  addressed  to  the  people. 
The  sacred  vessels  should  always  be  covered  before  the  pastor  leaves 
the  altar  at  the  close  of  the  service.  Decency  and  order  is  required 
at  all  times.  A  word  of  warning  regarding  announcements  must  also 
be  sounded.  They  should  be  as  brief  as  possible  and  contain  only  the 
actual  church  announcements.  Everything  else  belongs  on  the  Bul- 
letin Board  or  in  the  Parish  Paper.  Above  all,  the  pastor's  tendency 
toward  facetiousness  must  not  be  indulged  in  making  announcements. 
In  addition  to  these  rather  aphoristic  remarks,  one  might  bring 
many  with  reference  to  the  general  decorum  of  the  pastor  upon  all 
occasions.  For  he  should  exert  the  same  care  in  the  occasional  acts 
that  he  uses  in  the  chief  service.  And  while  he  will  not  personally 
perform  acts  not  consistent  with  the  dignity  of  his  office  in  the  pres- 
ence of  the  congregation,  he  will  quietly  and  inconspicuously  insist 
upon  their  being  done.  In  short,  the  pastor,  also  as  liturgist,  wiU 
endeavor  to  show  himself  a  good  steward  of  the  manifold  mercies 
of  God."7) 


CHAPTER  6. 
Organ  Music  in  Church  Services. 

The  Protestant  churches  of  America  have,  either  by  agreement 
or  consent,  given  to  the  organ  a  very  prominent  place  in  the  services. 
Whereas  the  Puritans  consistently  opposed  the  use  of  musical  in- 
struments in  church  worship,  many  of  the  present  Keformed  bodies 
have  brought  the  organ  forward  into  such  prominence,  both  architec- 
turally and  litufgically,  that  a  discussion  of  the  place  of  the  organ  in 
the  Lutheran  service  would  seem  by  no  means  superfluous,  especially 
since  an  increasing  number  of  Lutheran  congregations  are  taking  up 
the  idea,  not  only  of  giving  to  the  organ  a  very  conspicuous  position 

497)  Cp.  Memoirs,  V:  2.  7,  8;  Theol.  Quart.,  XXI  (1917),  218—230; 
Muehe,  Die  pastorale  Wuerde  im  Kirchendienste :  Lochner,  142.  264.  265. 


406  OBGAN  MUSIC  IN  CHUECH  SERVICES. 

in  the  church-building,  but  also  of  yielding  or  assigning  to  it  the 
most  prominent  part  of  the  service. 

The  broaching  of  this  matter  may  seem  to  some  a  needless  em- 
phasizing of  trifles.  It  may  be  conceded,  of  course,  that  the  matter 
of  organ  music  of  every  kind  is  an  adiaphoron.  There  is  no  com- 
mandment of  God  which  gives  to  the  organ  either  a  primary  or  a 
secondary  position,  or  makes  music  either  essential  or  subsidiary  for 
divine  worship.  And  yet,  it  is  not  a  matter  of  indifference.  In  many 
Reformed  churches,  organ  music  is  placed  on  a  par  with  the  means 
of  grace,  and  more.  In  many  service  "programs"  the  organ  music 
and  the  names  of  the  solo  singers  are  displayed  in  prominent  type, 
while  the  subject  of  the  sermon,  if  one  be  held  at  all,  is  announced 
with  a  most  apologetic  air,  accompanied,  in  many  cases,  with  the  ex- 
press assurance  that  the  sermon  will  not  occupy  more  than  ten  or,  at 
most,  fifteen  minutes.  It  means,  in  effect,  that  the  audience  should 
not  let  the  few  words  of  the  pastor  or  speaker  interfere  with  its  en- 
joyment of  the  musical  numbers  on  the  "program."  There  may  be 
no  harm  intended  if  such  "special  music  programs"  be  announced  for 
a  Lutheran  church  in  place  of  the  regular  service  with  preaching,  but 
there  certainly  is  danger  of  harm.  A  Lutheran  congregation  will 
strive  to  bring  out  its  doctrinal  position  also  in  its  cultv^,  and  will 
avoid  everything  that  may  be  misconstrued  as  though  the  Lutherans 
had  abated  one  whit  from  their  position  toward  the  means  of  grace. 
The  Word  and  the  Sacraments  must  always  occupy  the  most  prom- 
inent place  before  the  congregation,  and  everything  that  will  detract 
the  attention  of  the  audience  from  these  most  important  parts  of  the 
service  must  be  avoided  with  the  greatest  care. 

In  order,  however,  that  this  principle  may  be  upheld  in  the 
Lutheran  Church,  it  is  necessary  that  the  organist  (and  the  mxisic 
committee)  be  acquainted  with  the  liturgical  history  of  the  Christian 
Church,  especially  since  the  sixteenth  century.  It  may  not  be  neces- 
sary to  take  a  full  and  thorough  course  in  liturgies,  though  such  a 
course  would  by  no  means  seem  superfluous,  but  it  would  certainly  be 
advisable  to  take  up  the  history  of  church  music  from  the  beginning, 
with  special  reference  to  the  liturgy.  And  the  organist  should  under- 
stand that  the  liturgy  represents  not  merely  a  form  of  worship,  but  is 
a  confession  of  faith.  There  is  such  a  thing  as  catering  to  the  spirit 
of  the  times,  and,  incidentally,  losing  some  of  the  greatest  treasures 
of  the  Lutheran  Church. 

So  far  as  the  history  of  church  music  in  the  narrower  sense  since 
the  Eeformation  is  concerned,  the  early  Church  Orders  restricted  its 
use,  and  apparently  with  the  best  of  reasons.  To  the  liturgists  of  the 
sixteenth  and  seventeenth  centuries  it  was  an  evidence  of  the  decay 


ORGAN  MUSIC  IN  CHURCH  SERVICES.  407 

of  the  choral  that  an  organ  was  absolutely  required  in  services.  "To 
say  the  truth,"  says  the  learned,  but  eccentric  Flacius,  "the  strange, 
manifold  squeaking  (Quinkelierung)  of  the  organ  does  not  fit  so  well 
into  the  church  as  some  people  seem  to  think."  Instead  of  finding 
rules  for  the  introduction  of  organs,  as  we  should  perhaps  expect,  we 
find  a  number  of  directions  which  not  only  correct  abuses  of  the  or- 
gan as  a  factor  in  the  liturgical  service,  but  actually  restrict  its  use. 
According  to  some  Church  Orders,  the  organ  was  not  to  be  used  on 
Good  Friday,  or  from  the  second  Sunday  in  Advent  till  Christmas 
and  from  Laetare  till  Easter.  The  Pomeranian  Agenda  also  included 
Bogation  Week,  with  the  exception  of  Ascension  Day.  It  was  also 
not  customary  for  the  organ  to  accompany  all  the  hymns  or  the  entire 
hymns.  In  many  instances  the  organ  merely  intoned  the  melody  and 
the  congregation  sang  the  hymns  alone.  This  was  true  especially  with 
regard  to  the  German  Creed.  In  addition  to  these  restrictions,  the 
attempts  at  artistic  playing  were  frowned  upon.  All  efforts  which 
savored  of  concert  playing  were  not  looked  upon  with  favor.  Motets 
or  other  strange  pieces  in  the  service  proper  were  not  permitted,  the 
organ  being  strictly  in  the  service  of  the  congregation  and  its  singing. 
The  organist  might  give  evidence  of  his  art  in  the  postlude.  Em- 
phasis was  placed  especially  on  one  point,  namely,  that  the  preludes, 
interludes,  and  postludes,  also  other  volvmtaries,  should  not  encroach 
upon  the  time  reserved  for  prayers  and  the  sermon.  Above  all,  secu- 
lar music  was  strictly  taboo,  secular  songs  and  fantasies,  as  well  as 
popular  melodies  being  under  the  ban.'*^*) 

These  orders  were  given  with  good  liturgical  imderstanding,  not 
in  Puritanical  opposition  to  music  as  such.  One  principle  must  be 
maintained  in  the  Lutheran  Church,  namely,  that  the  organ  should 
not  occupy  an  independent  position  in  worship.  Its  subsidiary  char- 
acter must  be  expressed  at  all  times.  It  should  serve  the  congregation 
above  all  in  the  singing  of  the  hymns.  The  organist  will  therefore 
prepare  himself  very  carefully  for  each  service.  His  music  must  be 
selected  with  the  purpose  of  bringing  out  the  lesson  or  the  character 
of  the  day.  This  will  be  apparent  even  in  the  prelude  or  voluntary 
before  the  beginning  of  worship.  The  hymns  must  be  studied  both  as 
to  text  and  music  to  emphasize  the  spirit  in  them.  All  the  shadings 
of  joy  up  to  the  veriest  exultation,  all  the  blendings  of  sorrow,  long- 
ing, repentance,  and  whatever  other  disposition  is  brought  out  in  the 
text,  must  be  correctly  interpreted  in  the  music.  The  preludes  for 
the  several  chorals  especially  must  agree  with  the  character  of  the 
respective  hymns.     Interludes  should  not  be  longer  than  to  afford  a 


498)  Cp.  Kliefoth,  Die  urspruengliche  Gottesdiemtordnung,  IV,  280.  281. 


408  OEGAN  MUSIC  IN  CHURCH  SERVICES. 

breathing-space  for  the  congregation.  Above  all,  extemporaneous 
pliaying  and  improvising  is  inexcusable  at  the  organ  during  regular 
church-services.  An  artist  of  the  first  rank  may  attempt  it  at  a  church 
concert,  but  for  any  one  else  to  test  the  patience  of  the  congregation 
in  such  a  manner  is  little  short  of  an  insult.  The  sacredness  of  pub- 
lic worship  and  the  exclusive  emphasis  which  we  must  place  upon  the 
means  of  grace  forbid  such  performances.  In  many  hymns,  interludes 
may  be  omitted  entirely,  a  long  pause  being  suflBcient  to  indicate  the 
close  of  a  stanza.  The  organist  should  avoid  chopping  two  stanzas 
which  form  one  sentence,  or  a  closely  knit  paragraph,  apart.  This  is 
evidence  of  great  thoughtlessness  on  his  part,  and  seriously  interferes 
with  the  devotion  of  the  audience.^^^) 

A  Lutheran  organist  will  remember,  above  all,  that  the  classical 
choral  melodies  of  the  sixteenth  and  seventeenth  centuries  should  al- 
ways occupy  first  place  in  his  repertoire.  He  will  do  well,  therefore, 
to  discuss  the  selection  of  the  melodies  with  the  pastor.  To  replace 
the  glorious  tunes  of  the  "golden  age"  in  Lutheran  church  music  with 
some  of  the  shallow,  sentimental  melodies  of  modern  Gospel-hymns 
or  operas,  is  little  short  of  sacrilege.  The  grand  old  melodies  of  that 
age  were  written  for  the  hymns,  or  the  hymns  were  written  for  the 
melodies,  and  to  divorce  them  means  a  lowering  of  devotional  pro- 
priety. Only  by  a  consistent  combination  of  forces  can  the  organist 
serve  the  edification  of  the  congregation.soo)  The  words  of  Kliefoth 
may  well  be  mentioned  here:  "The  organ  deserves  special  attention 
in  its  relation  to  the  singing  of  church-hymns  and  the  liturgy.  That 
idea,  indeed,  as  though  the  organ  enabled  the  congregation  to  learn 
to  sing  or  sing  better,  must  be  dropped.  ...  To  educate  the  congre- 
gation in  the  ability  to  sing  the  organ  is  neither  needed  nor  is  it 
adapted  for  that  purpose;  but  it  is  good  and  appropriate  for  accom- 
panying good  church-singing,  which  is  learned  by  singing  and  in  no 
other  way.  And  since  the  organ  occupies  this  accompanying  position 
only,  it  must  be  retained  in  this  position.  Li  the  service  of  the  con- 
gregation only  such  music  has  the  right  of  existence  as  is  in  the  ser- 
vice of  the  Word.  The  organ  dare  not  play  an  independent  role  with- 
out such  singing.  Long  preludes,  postludes,  and  interludes  must  be 
discontinued,  but,  above  aU,  the  insertion  of  self -composed  fugues  and 
other  devices,  by  which  the  congregation  assembled  for  services  is 
changed  into  a  concert  audience.  When  the  service  is  over,  the  or- 
ganist may  exhibit  his  art  and  play  a  fugue  or  other  composition."  ^oi) 


499)  Fuerbringer,  Leitfaden,  Liturgik,  26. 

500)  Cp.  "Lutheran  l^ines  for  Lutheran  Congregational  Singing," 
in  Lutheran  Witness,  XXXVII,  118. 

501)  Die  urspruengliche  Gottesdienstordnung,  V,  356.  357. 


ORGAN  MUSIC  IN  CHUBCH  SERVICES.  409 

Lochner,  in  the  discussion  of  this  question,  calls  attention  to  several 
points:  First,  that  a  long  prelude  between  the  reading  of  the  Gosi)el 
and  the  singing  of  the  Creed  is  out  of  order,  as  well  as  interludes 
during  the  Creed;  and  secondly,  that  the  interludes  between  the  stan- 
zas of  the  Communion  hynm  should  not  be  too  long.  This  is  more 
tiresome  for  the  congregation  than  the  singing  of  several  hymns.^<>2) 

A  question  which  is  broached  by  Kliefoth,  as  well  as  by  Lochner, 
is  that  of  having  the  organ  be  silent  during  the  liturgical  singing, 
especially  during  the  chanting  of  the  pastor.  The  argument  which 
has  usually  been  advanced,  that  the  organ  was  to  assist  the  liturgist, 
is  one  which  will  not  hold  good,  for  the  liturgist  is  supposed  to  know 
the  music  of  the  litrugy  thoroughly  before  attempting  to  sing  it  be- 
fore the  altar.  The  other  reason  advanced,  that  the  solemnity  of  the 
service  be  enhanced  and  the  devotion  be  stimulated,  has  more  to  sus- 
tain it.  The  proper  playing  of  the  melody  not  only  serv-es  the  purpose 
of  impressiveness,  but  also  has  a  quieting  effect  upon  the  mind.  With- 
out encouraging  mere  sentimental  rhapsody,  it  assists  in  devotional 
edification.  Local  circumstances  must  therefore  decide  the  question 
as  to  the  accompaniment  of  chanting  by  the  organ.  If  the  liturgist 
has  a  good  voice  for  singing,  the  organist  will  do  well  to  accompany 
the  chanting  with  soft  chords.  If  the  pastor's  voice  is  not  reliable, 
he  should  chant  either  without  accompaniment  or,  better  still,  read 
the  passages.  The  rules  given  by  Kraussold  are:  "1)  The  organist 
should  use  soft  stops  only.  2)  The  recitative  chant  of  the  pastor 
should  be  norm  for  the  length  of  the  chords.  3)  The  chanting  should 
never  be  accompanied  in  coniinuo,  the  organ  being  silent  where  there 
is  no  change  in  harmony.  4)  The  pedal  must  not  be  used  during  the 
recitative  chanting  of  the  pastor."  ^^^) 

As  far  as  music  of  the  choir  is  concerned,  it  must  always  be  in 
accordance  with  the  purpose  of  the  day.  Its  proper  place  is  after  the 
Epistle-lesson,  instead  of  the  Hallelujah  otherwise  chanted  by  the 
congregation.  But  choir-singing  may  also  be  used  during  the  distri- 
bution of  Holy  Communion.  And  it  must  never  be  forgotten  that 
the  choir  should  be  active  as  choir  only,  solo  singing,  unless  it  be  as 
a  movement  of  a  larger  composition,  being  out  of  place  in  a  Lutheran 
service,  just  as  much  as  any  other  individual  and  independent  activity 
outside  of  the  means  of  grace.  Everything  that  reminds  of  the  con- 
cert hall  must  be  avoided  in  a  Lutheran  service.  This  includes  the 
placing  of  the  choir  in  the  altar  space  or  on  any.  prominent  elevation 
before  the  congregation.  It  is  quite  proper,  however,  to  place  the 
choir  on  the  balcony  of  the  transept.    It  must  never  be  forgotten  that 


502)  Der  Hauptoottesdimst,  171.  266. 

503)  Lochner,  Der  Hauptgottesdienat,  75.  79. 


410  ORGAN  MUSIC  IN  CHUECH  SERVICES. 

the  Lutheran  church  choir  is  a  part  of  the  congregation,  and  repre- 
sents the  congregation  in  the  singing  of  any  hymns  of  praise.  To 
give  to  the  choir  the  position  of  the  lower  clergy  savors  of  a  polity 
which  is  not  in  harmony  with  Lutheran  democracy. 

A  word  may  finally  be  said  in  regard  to  selections  from  operas 
which  are  rendered  in  many  churches,  the  "Bridal  March"  from 
Lohengnn,  the  "Intermezzo"  from  Cavalleria  Rusticana,  and  several 
other  melodies  being  the  chief  martyrs  in  this  respect.  A  Lutheran 
liturgist  and  a  Lutheran  organist  with  tact  will  immediately  feel  the 
impropriety  of  such  music  upon  the  occasion  of  a  church-service. 
Operatic  music  for  the  operatic  stage,  but  church-music  for  the  church ! 
The  distinction  between  religious  concert-music  and  church-music 
must  be  upheld  most  rigidly  if  we  wish  to  preserve  the  glorious  heri- 
tage of  the  Church,  the  matchless  choral  and  the  wonderful  achieve- 
ments of  Bach  and  other  masters.^^*) 


504)  Cp.  Lochner,  34 — 38.  84.  85;  Dickinson,  Music  in  the  History  of 
the  Western  Church,  Chap.  VI. 


INDEX  AND  GLOSSARY. 


Abelard,  325.  , 

Aberration,  liturgical,  specimens 
of.  289.  290. 

Acoustics,  156, 

Adam  of  St.  Victor,  325. 

Advent,  353-  354. 

Agenda  of  Frederick  William  III, 
298. 

Aisle,  a  lateral  division  or  wing 
of  a  church,  flanking  the  nave; 
a  passageway  by  which  pews 
may  be  reached,  used  especiallj^ 
of  the  main  aisle,  from  the 
chief  entrance  to  the  altar. 

Alae,  24. 

Alt  on  the  Cultus,  299. 

Altar.  117.  172. 

Altar  of  incense,  12.  13;  burnt  of- 
fering, 13. 

Altdorfer,  111. 

Ambo  or  ambon.  a  desk  from 
which  the  lectores  read  the 
gospels  and  epistles. 

Ambrosian  hymns,  323;  liturgy, 
256. 

Ambulatory,  55. 

Ampulla,  blood-phial,  found  in 
the  catacombs. 

Anglican  church  year,  367. 

Announcements,  166.  167. 

Apostolic    Constitutions,   245. 

Apsis  or  apse,  30. 

Arabesque,  fanciful  ornamenta- 
tion, from  Arabian  architec- 
ture, used  especially  in  Roman 
and  Renaissance  decoration. 

Architecture,  definition  of,  4.  . 

Ark  of  the  covenant.  12. 

Armenian  church  year,  364. 

Art,  definition  of,  4.  5. 

Ascension,  festival   of,  352.  362. 

Athos,  Mount  Athos  Handbook, 
105. 

Atonement,  Day  of,  346. 

Atrium,  21. 

Auditorium,  157. 

Bach,  J.  S..  338. 
Bands,  214.  402. 
Balcony,  162;  proper  position  and 

use,  163, 
Baptism,  act  of,  398;  rite  of,  399. 
Baptismal  fonts,  120;  position  of, 

161.  178. 
Baptist  liturgy,  309. 


Baptistery,  a  room  or  building 
where  the  rite  of  baptism  was 
administered. 

Bardesanes,   hymn-writer,  318. 

Baroque,  80. 

Basement,  171. 

Basil,  hymn-writer,  319. 

Basilica,  27 — 31. 

Beda  Venerabilis,  324. 

Bellini,  106. 

Bells,  121.  199. 

Bema,  30. 

Bernard  of  Clairveaux,  325. 

Bernard  of  Cluny,  325. 

Bonaventura,  326. 

Botticelli,  106. 

Breviary  of  Quignon,  264. 

Brunelleschi,  101.  106. 

Buffalo  Synod  liturgy,  304. 

Buttress,  33;    flying  buttress,  49. 

Byzantine  churches,  principle  of, 
31.  32. 

Calvin's  Order  of  1536,  308. 

Campanile,  44. 

Candlestick,  13.  16. 

Candelabrum,  128.  181. 

Canon  Missae,  264. 

Canonical     hours,      psalms     and 

hymns  of.  320.  384. 
Canova,  102. 
Cantharus,  27. 
Cantus  choralis,  322. 
Carlstadt's  iconoclasm.  277. 
Catacombs,  22. 

Cathedra  of  Maximinianus,  99. 
Cellini,  101. 
Cenral   type   of  church   building, 

26.  27. 
Ceremonies  of  baptism.  390. 
Character    of    Lutheran    church 

building,    135. 
Chancel,  119.  158;  in  order  before 

services,  403, 
Cherubs  of  evangelists,  220. 
Chief    Lutheran    service,    division 

of,  375, 
Christmas,  352,  355. 
Church  Orders,  early,  281;    after 

Thirty  Years'  War.  284. 
Ciborium,  35.  99.  117.  127. 
Circular  churches,  25. 
Circumcision,  Festival   of,  355. 
Clemens  Komanus.  242. 
Clementine  Liturgy.  248. 


412 


INDEX  AND  GLOSSARY. 


Clerestory,  the  highest  story  of 
the  nave  and  choir  of  a  church, 
with  windows  opening  over  the 
aisle-roofs. 

Cloister,  a  covered  walk  follow- 
ing the  walls  of  a  building. 

Colombe,  102. 

Colonnade,  a  series  of  columns 
at  regular  intervals. 

Colors  ior  decorating,  193. 

Columns,  Doric  (simple),  Ionic 
(with  lines  of  magnificence), 
Corinthian  (profusely  ornamen- 
ted on  same  lines),  Tuscan 
(modification  in  Italy). 

Common  Prayer,  First  Book  of, 
290;   Second  Book  of,  294. 

Compline,  321. 

Confessional  service.  388. 

Confirmation,  392. 

Congregationalist  liturgy,  309. 

Coptic  and  Abyssinian  church 
year,    365. 

Corpus  Christ!  Festival,  356. 

Correggio,  108. 

Counterpoint,  327. 

Court,  royal,  19;  of  the  Gentiles, 
19.  20. 

Cranach,  111. 

Cross  and  crucifix.  128.  180. 

Crozier,  121. 

Crypt,  22,  47,  a  vault,  usually  be- 

-  neath  a  church,  or  a  portion  of 
a  catacomb. 

Cupola,  the  convex  roof  of  a 
building,  either  circular  or  po- 
lygonal. 

Cyprian,  246. 

Damasus,  323. 

Damiani,  Peter,  325. 

Dannecker,  102. 

Danish-American   liturgy,   302. 

Da  Vinci.  106. 

Dedication,  Feast  of,  347. 

Delacroix,  110. 

Delaroche.  110. 

Delia  Eobbia,  Luca,  101. 

Development  of  Christian  Archi- 
tecture, 23.  24. 

Didache  teaching,  243. 

Difference  between  Lutheran  and 
Keformed  liturgy,   307. 

Dinanderie,  99. 

Diptych,  a  tablet  of  metal  or 
ivory,  covered  with  wax,  con- 
taining the  names  of  confes- 
sors and  martyrs. 

Dome,  a  large  cupola,  used  in 
classic  and  Byzantine  architec- 
ture; a  cathedral. 


Donatello,  101. 

Doors  of  cypress  wood,  S.  Sabina, 

Rome,  also  Florence,  99. 
Duerer,  110. 

Easter,  349.  356.  361. 

Embroidery,  201.   208.  210. 

English  hymn-writers,  338. 

Ennodius,  323. 

Entablature,  the  portion  of  a 
building  immediately  supported 
by  columns,  consisting  of  ar- 
chitrave, frieze,   and  cornice. 

Ephesine  Liturgy,  253. 

Ephraem  the  Syrian,  318. 

Epiphany,  352.  355.  363. 

Eucharistic  vessels.  126.  182. 

Ewer,  a  wide-mouthed  water- 
pitcher. 

Exterior  of  church,  170. 

Fagade,  the  front  elevation  of  a 
building. 

Familiarity  with  liturgy  and  li- 
turgical usages,  402. 

Festivals  of  Jews,  343. 

Fiesole,  105. 

FigTire  windows,  115.  116. 

Flaxman,  102. 

Formula  Missae.  279. 

Fortunatus,  324. 

Frescoing,  192. 

Frieze,  the  middle  member  of  the 
entablature,  between  architrave 
and  cornice. 

Fugue,  327. 

Gable,  the  upper  part  of  an  end 
wall,  above  the  eaves. 

Galilean  Liturg3-,  254. 

Gargoyle,  57. 

Gerhard,  Paul.  335. 

Ghiberti,  101. 

Giotto,  105. 

Good  Friday,  351.  356. 

Gowns,  pulpit,  402. 

Graffiti,  98. 

Gregory  the  Great,  322.  324. 

Gregory  of  Nazianz,  —  Thauma- 
turges, 320. 

Grisaille  work.  115. 

Hallel,  the  Great.  313. 

Hardware,  198. 

Heating,  196. 

Hilary     of     Poitiers     (Poictiers), 

323. 
Hippolytus,  statue  of,  99. 
Historical     considerations     in     a 

Lutheran  church  building,  134. 
Hoefling  on  baptism,  299. 
Hofmann,  112. 


INDEX  AND  OLOSSABY. 


418 


Holbein,  111. 

Hugues,  liturgy  of,  308. 

Hymn-boards,  188. 

Hymnody  in  the  early  Church, 
316;  in  Syria,  318;  period  of 
lleformation,  326;  since  the  Ee- 
formation,  334. 

Hymn-writers,  £nglish,  338. 

Ignatius  of  Antioch,  244. 

Impluvium,  24. 

Instruments,     musical,     used     in 

Old   Testament  worship,   315. 
Iowa   Synod   liturgy,   304. 
Irenaeus  of  Lyons,  245. 

Jacoponus  da  Todi,  326. 
Jewish  festivals,  343. 
Jonas.  Justus,  330. 
Justin  Martyr,  244. 

Kaulbach,  111. 

Kliefoth's  work  in  liturgies,  300. 

Knox's  liturgy,  308. 

Lantern,  a  small  pinnacle  on  the 
apex  of  a  dome,  admitting  light 
into  the  interior. 

Laver,  13. 

Lectern,  179. 

Lectorium,  ambo,  46,  119. 

Leisen,  327. 

Lenten  Season,  351.  355. 

Lessing,  112, 

Lighting,  195. 

Lintel,  the  horizontal  cross-piece 
of  a  aoor-  or  window-opening. 

Lippi,  Fra  Filippo,  106. 

Liturgical  study,  reasons  for,  228. 

Liturgical  and  ritual  require- 
ments, 139;  deterioration,  rea- 
sons for,  283;  aberration,  spe- 
cimens of,  289;  customs,  360; 
reading,  404. 

Liturgist,  a  ministrant  in  public 
worship;  liturgiologist,  one 
versed  in  the  science  of  litur- 
gies". 

Liturgist,  dress  and  deportment 
of,  401. 

Liturgy,  derivation  of  term.  229; 
purpose  of,  229;  its  nucleus  in 
the  New  Testament.  239. 

Liturgies,  parent,  248;  of  St. 
James,  249;  of  North  Africa, 
255;  of  Alexandria,  257;  Coptic 
or  Sahidic,  258;  early  Roman, 
258;  development  of  Roman, 
260;  introduction  into  Great 
Britain,  Germany,  and  else- 
where,   262. 


Liturgies  of  the  present  day,  267; 
Orthodox  Oriental,  267;  Arme- 
nian, 268;  Nestorian,  269;  Sy- 
rian Jacobite,  270;  Maronite, 
270;  Egyptian,  271;  Malabar, 
272;  Ambrosian,  272;  Mozarabic, 
274;  of  England,  290;  Celtic  and 
Scotch,  292. 

Luther  on  appropriate  church 
buildings,  74;  German  order  of 
services,  280;  German  Mass, 
281;  hymnist,  328.  333;  on  fes- 
tivals, 369;  order  of  baptism, 
391. 

Lutheran  church  year,  369. 

Mantegna,  Andrea,  106. 

Mary  festivals,  357. 

Material,  choice  of,  for  building, 

148. 
Matins,  321.  385.  387. 
Matrimony,    rite    of  solemnizing, 

393,  399. 
Maundy  Thursday,  351.  356. 
Memling,  109. 
Mercy-seat,  12. 

Methodist  Episcopal  liturgy,  310. 
Michelangelo  Buonarotti,  101.  106. 
Millet,  110. 
Minaret,  34. 
Minor   services    of   the    Anglican 

Church,  296. 
Minster,   a   monastery  church,   a 

cathedral. 
Missal,  263. 

Missouri  Synod  liturgy,  303. 
Monstrance,  121, 
Morning    Service    or   Communion 

analyzed,  376.  396. 
Mosaics,  190. 
Motet,  327. 

Mozarabic  Liturgy,  254. 
Mullion,  56. 
Murillo,  109. 

Narthex,  29,  the  portico  of  the 
Byzantine  church. 

Nave,  the  central  part  of  the 
church  building,  on  either  side 
of  the  main  aisle  and  west  of 
the  apse. 

Nestorian  church  year,  365. 

New  Moon,  Seventh,  347. 

Niche,  a  recess  in  a  wall  intended 
for  a  statue  or  ornamental  ob- 
ject. 

Notker  Balbulus.  325. 

Norwegrian-American  liturgy,  301. 

Old  Testament  liturgy,  history 
of,  311. 


414 


INDEX  AND  GLOSSABY. 


Orans,  98.  103. 

Oratory,  25.  46. 

Order  of  services,  early,  241. 

Ordination,  394. 

Organ,  122.  185;  in  church  servi- 
ces, 405.  407. 

Organist  acquainted  with  the  his- 
tory of  the  liturgy  and  of  mu- 
sic, 406. 

Orientation,  137. 

Palm  Sunday,  356. 

Palestrina,  327. 

Paraments,  125.  199- 

Parish  house  and  parish  school, 

221. 
Passover,  342. 
Paten,  a  plate  or  dish  to  hdld  the 

Eucharistic  bread. 
Paul  the  Deacon.  324. 
Pediment,  a  low  triangular  m^em- 

ber    above  the  portico,    a   low 

gable. 
Pendentive,  32. 
Pentecost,  344;    New  Testament, 

352.  356.  362. 
Peristylium,  21. 
Peter,  statue  of,  99. 
Pews,  184. 

Pietism,  influence  on  liturgy,  285. 
Pier,    a  supporting  structure  of 

masonry. 
Pilaster,    a     square    half-column 

projecting  from  a  wall,  usually 

bearing  roof-trusses. 
Pillar,   an  upright  separate   sup- 
port or  column. 
Pillars  of  the  temple.  16. 
Pisani,  Niccola  and  Giovanni,  100. 
Pix  or  pyx,  121,  an  ivory  box  for 

the  consecrated  elements. 
Plaque,  102. 
Plain  Song,  322. 
Pliny  the  Younger,  242. 
Plockhorst,  112. 

Portal,  Golden,  of  Freiburg,  100. 
Poussin,  110 
Prayer  Book  of  1549,  293;  of  1552, 

294;   of  Elizabeth,  294;    of  1662, 

295;    Scottish  Book.  295. 
Preliminary     steps    in    building, 

154. 
Presbyterian  liturgy,  309. 
Priest's  garments,  13. 
Prothesis,  table  of,  12;  117. 
Prudentius,  323. 
Psalms    in    Old    Testament    w^or- 

ship,     311;     chanting     of,     314; 

melodies   of,   314;     Instruments 

used  ^vith,  315. 


Pulpit  of  Pisa,  100;  form  of,  176. 

Purim,  Feast  of,  347. 

Purposes     of     Christian     church 

building,    133. 
Putti,  80. 

Nationalism,  influence  on  liturgy, 

387. 
Ranch,  102. 

Reformation  and  the  liturgy,  275. 
Reformed  church  year,  368. 
Rembrandt,  110, 
Requirements,     fundamental,     in 

church  building,   129. 
Rethel,  112. 
Retiring-room,  170. 
Rhabanus  Maurus,  324. 
Richter,  111.  112. 
Rietschel,  102. 
Robert  of  France,  325. 
Rococo,  80. 
Rubens,  109. 

Sacrifice,  spirit  of,  129. 
Sacrifices,     the     various    Jewish, 

234. 
Saints'  and  Martyrs'  days,  359. 
Sanzio,  Raphael,  108. 
Schlueter,  Andreas,  102. 
Schnorr  v.  Carolsfeld,  111. 
Sculpture,  191. 
Sedilia,  30. 
Sedulius,  324. 
Selnecker,  332. 
Showbread,  table  of,  13. 
Site  of  church  building,  154. 
Size  of  church  building,  154. 
Spandril,  the  space  between  the 

upper  cross-piece  of  a  door  or 

■wandow^  and  the  arch  forming 

its  frame. 
Speratus,  329. 
Spire,     that   part    of   the   steeple 

which   surmounts  the  tower. 
Stone,  Nicholas,  102. 
Stoup,     a     receptacle     for     holy 

water. 
Style  of  Lutheran  church,  142. 
Sunday,  348;    Reformed,  366. 
Swedish      Lutheran      liturgy     in 

America,    303. 
Symbols,    ecclesiastical,    221.  214. 
Synagogs,  236. 
Synesius,   hymn-writer,  320. 

Tabernacle,  name,  9;  form  and 
structure,  10;  division,  12;  later 
history,  14. 

Tabernacles,   Feast  of,  345. 

Tablinum,  21. 


INDEX  AND  GLOSSARY. 


415 


Temple  of  Solomon,  14;  of  Zerub- 
babel,  17;  of  Herod,  19. 

Temple  services,  232. 

Thoma.  114. 

Thomas  of  Celano,  325. 

Thomas  Acquinas,  326. 

Thomas  a  Kempis,  326. 

Thornhill,  110. 

Thorwaldsen,  102. 

Tintoretto,  109. 

Titian,  109. 

Tower,  167. 

Transept,  the  part  of  the  church 
which  crosses  the  nave  at  right 
angles,  forming  the  arms  of 
the  cross  in  the  ground-plan. 

Tribuna,  30. 

Triptych,  118,  a  more  elaborate 
folding  tablet  than  the  diptych. 

Tutilo,  325. 

Tympanum,  the  triangular  re- 
cessed face  of  a  pediment. 

Uhde,  114. 

Unleavened  Bread,  Feast  of,  344. 


United  Lutheran  Church  liturgy, 
304. 

Vaulting,  development  of,    46  ft. 

Velasquez,  109. 

Ventilation,  197. 

Vespers,  321.  385.  388. 

Vestibule,  166. 

Vestments     of     priests,     13;      of 

clergy,    122.    211. 
Vestry,  169. 
Vischer,  Peter,  102, 

Wernher  of  Tegernsee,  115. 

Windows,  188.  194. 

Wisconsin  Synod  liturgy,  304. 

Wood-oflfering,  Festival  of,  348. 

Worship,  places  of  in  early 
Church,  21;  principles  govern- 
ing, 395. 

Xavier,  Francis,  326. 

Z^vingli's  Liturgy  of  1523,  307, 


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